Appendix
Carola Boehm
(Staffordshire University, UK)
Citation
Boehm, C. (2022), "Appendix", Arts and Academia (Great Debates in Higher Education), Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 173-183. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-83867-727-520221008
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2022 Carola Boehm. Published under exclusive licence by Emerald Publishing Limited
Table of relevant policy introductions, events and discourses affecting cultural policy and education.
Policy Table 1.
1940–1997.
| Year | Selectivity | Title (Shaded = Labour, Non-shaded = Conservative) | Notes, Discourses, Quotes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1940 | Agency | (Winston Churchill, caretaker government) | Quote (wrongly attributed to?) Churchill, when asked to cut arts funding in favour of the war effort, he replied: ‘Then what are we fighting for?’ |
| 1940 | Structural | Origin of the Arts Council. Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts (CEMA). | |
| 1945 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Labour win. (Clement Attlee) (Majority 146) | Festival of Britain – Labour cabinet member Herbert Morrison was the prime mover, associated strongly with the Labour Government. Churchill referred to the forthcoming Festival of Britain as having a Socialist agenda. |
| 1946 | Structural | Arts Council – A Royal Charter was granted on 9 August 1946 | |
| 1950 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Labour win. (Clement Attlee) (Majority 5) | |
| 1951 | Festival of Britain was a national exhibition and fair that reached millions of visitors throughout the United Kingdom. Included Architecture, Design, the Arts and Science. 1 | ||
| 1951 | Agency | SNAP ELECTION – Conservatives win. (Winston Churchill) (Majority 17) | Churchill's first act as Prime Minister in October 1951 was to clear the South Bank Festival site. |
| 1953 | Discursive | Coronation of Elizabeth II | |
| 1955 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservatives win. (Anthony Eden) | |
| 1959 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservatives win. (Harold Macmillan) | |
| 1964 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Labour win. (Harold Wilson) (Maj 4) | Swinging Sixties. ‘The Swinging City’ (Time magazine April 1966). Flourishing art, music and fashion. Key actors: The Beatles, miniskirts, Twiggy, The Who, Kinks, Rolling Stones. Radio stations: Radio Caroline and Singing Radio England, etc. |
| 1965 | Discursive | Labour Party: A Policy for the Arts: The First Steps. A White Paper (Jenny Lee). | |
| 1966 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Labour win. (Harold Wilson) (Maj 98) | |
| 1967 | Discursive | The supplemental Charter to the Arts Council of Great Britain (7th February 1967) with devolved powers to Scotland and Wales, the basis for today's Scottish Arts Council and Arts Council of Wales. | |
| 1970 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservatives win. (Edward Heath) (majority by 30) | As Secretary of State for Education and Science in the Heath Government, Margaret Thatcher had attempted to introduce charges for entry to state museums and galleries. These policies were rejected in 1974 by the incoming Labour Government (Mulholland, 2003, p. Notes). |
| 1970 | Structural | Department of Trade and Industry created (DTI). Existed 1970–2007 | |
| 1974 | Agency | General Election x2 – Labour win. (Harold Wilson) (Minority government by 33, then in same year new election: majority by 3) | |
| 1974 | Agency/Discursive | Office of Minister for the Arts (July 1974) Report on the Arts – Fruits of Patronage. | |
| 1977 | Discursive | The Arts and the People – Labour Policy towards the Arts | |
| 1978 | Discursive | Conservative Party: The Arts – The Way Forward | In the 1979 Arts Council report responded to the election and the Conservative manifesto, highlighting the risk if it were to lose its independence. Conservative Secretary of State, Mark Carlisle, took greater control of curriculum matters and oversaw the abolition of the Schools' Council and its replacement with the School Curriculum and Development Committee and the Secondary Examinations Council, the members of which were appointed by the Secretary of State. (UK Parliament, 2009). Changes in the National Curriculum in Schools altered the manner in which the arts are taught in schools (see Stephenson et al., 2000, p. 26). The arts curriculum now shifted focus on art education, much of it teacher training. This could be contextualized in the 1980s and 1990s debate of ‘cultural democracy’ versus the ‘democratisation of culture’ (Stephenson et al., 2000, p. 26), or in other words, an inherent criticism of mass culture vs a defence of intellectual culture. The Higher Education Act allowed Polytechnics and their more vocational oriented Arts offer to become universities with access to research funding in time also for the arts, and with it an increasing debate about practice-as-research. |
| 1979 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservatives win. (Margaret Thatcher) (majority by 43) | |
| 1979 | Discursive | Patronage and Responsibility. Arts Council of Great Britain – 34th annual report | |
| 1979 | Structural | Abolition of the Schools' Council. Secretary of State oversees now new: School Curriculum and Development Committee and Secondary Exams Council | |
| 1983 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservatives win. (Margaret Thatcher) | |
| 1985 | Discursive | The supplemental Charter to the Arts Council of Great Britain (31 July 1985) | |
| 1985 | Discursive | Better Schools White Paper, led by Secretary of State Keith Joseph, recommended moving towards a nationally-agreed curriculum. | |
| 1987 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservatives win. (Margaret Thatcher) | |
| 1988 | Structural | Education Reform Act, bringing in the National Curriculum | |
| 1990 | Discursive | Review of the Arts Council of Great Britain (HMSO) | |
| 1992 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservatives win. (John Major) | |
| 1992 | Structural | Arts Council restructures itself. | |
| 1992 | Structural | Department of National Heritage created (DNH). Existed 1992–1997. | |
| 1992 | Structural | Creation of a ministerial position for the Arts and Heritage, at cabinet level, announced in the re-organisation that occurred immediately after the 1992 election. (See Stephenson et al., 2000, p. 26) | |
| 1992 | Structural | Higher Education Act | |
| 1992 | Structural | Towards a National Arts and Media Strategy (London). National Arts and Media Strategy monitoring Group. | |
| 1994 | Structural | Arts Council of Great Britain was divided into three separate bodies for England, Scotland and Wales. | Now responsible for distributing lottery funding, which transformed the ability to fund arts organisations and increased high-quality arts initiatives. National Lottery was established in 1994. |
1
Note: In 2018 Prime Minister Theresa May announced that the government was planning a Festival of Great Britain and North-ern Ireland, to be held in 2022.The proposed festival, which is intended to unite the United Kingdom after Brexit, was widely criticized. …. (Wikipedia)
Policy Table 2.
1997–2010.
| Year | Selectivity | Title (Shaded = Lab, Non-shaded = Cons) | Notes, Discourses, Quotes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1997 | Discursive | Labour Manifesto: Because Britain Deserves Better | The manifesto and various documents produced at the time formulated centre-left market economics: its ‘third way’ between capitalism and socialism. Cultural policy shifts to economic policy, representing a shift from policy focusing on Culture 1.0 type of cultural engagements to Culture 2.0 types of cultural engagements. The changing of the name Department of National Heritage to Department for Culture, Media and Sport is one indicator of that shift. Tony Blair establishes the Creative Industries Task Force (CITF), which set out to measure the economic contribution, identifying policy measures. Increasing weight on economic measures in all creative and cultural sectors. |
| 1997 | Discursive | Labour Strategy Document. Create the Future: A Strategy for Cultural Policy, Arts and the Creative Economy | |
| 1997 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Labour (Tony Blair) (majority by 179) | |
| 1997 | Structural | DNH renamed to DCMS. | |
| 1997 | Discursive | Creative Industries Task Force (CITF) | |
| 1997 | Discursive | Dearing Report: National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education | Commissioned before the general election, recommended tuition fees and 7th research council for arts and humanities. Initiating of AHRB in 1998. (Dearing, 1997) |
| 1998 | Discursive | Chris Smith (Secretary of State), Creative Britain | Publication of a collected series of speeches and specially written chapters Secretary of State Chris Smith spells out the benefits of the arts to both the social and economic health of the nation and demonstrates that the nurturing and celebration of creative talent must be at the very heart of the political agenda. |
| 1998 | Discursive | A New Cultural Framework 1998 and The Creative Industries Mapping Document 1998 | Identification and measures of the creative industries, employing 1.4 million people and generating an estimated £60 billion a year, 5% of total UK income |
| 1998 | Structural | Establishment of the Arts and Humanities Research Board (AHRB) | Following guidance from the Dearing Report, research and postgraduate training for arts and humanities was addressed by the introduction of AHRB, not quite a research council, but on its way to becoming one. |
| 1998 | Structural/Agency | National Endowment for Science, Technology and the Arts (NESTA) | NESTA was set up by an independent endowment in the United Kingdom established by an Act of Parliament. Driver and founding chairman was David Puttnam (Film Producer of Local Hero, Chariots of Fire, The Killing Fields, Being Human). |
| 2000 | Structural | UK Film Council established, under DCMS. | Established to pool investment (including lottery funding) to the film industry. (Disbanded in 2011 in the bonfire of the quangos) |
| 2001 | Structural | Department of Education and Skills created | |
| 2001 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Labour (Tony Blair) (majority by 167) | |
| 2001 | Discursive | Business Clusters in the UK: A First Assessment, Department of Trade and Industry, London. | |
| 2002 | Structural | Government (DCMS) reorganises arts funding regionally. | The arts funding system in England underwent considerable reorganisation in 2002 when all of the regional arts boards were subsumed into Arts Council England and became regional offices of the national organisation. |
| 2002 | Discursive | Government review of research funding in the arts and humanities | Recommendation for AHRB to become a full research council. (Steering Group to Education Ministers, 2002) |
| 2003 | Discursive | DCMS Strategic Framework 2003–2006 | |
| 2003 | Discursive | Lambert Review of Business-University Collaboration | Concluded the biggest challenge to be demand for research in the business sectors. Biggest policy suggestion: best form of knowledge transfer comes when a talented researcher moves out of the university and into business, or vice versa (p. 12). |
| 2003 | Discursive | The Future of Higher Education | Recommendations for top-up fees. Bill was passed only in 2004 with 5 votes majority (316 ayes vs 311 noes). (DfES, 2003) |
| 2004 | Discursive | Government and the Value of Culture | Authored by Tessa Jowell, the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport from 2001 to 2007, differentiating again publicly funded ‘culture’ and industry connected ‘entertainment’. A distinction between ‘culture’ and ‘entertainment’ thus re-emerged in DCMS policy discourse. While the recommendations of Supporting Excellence in the Arts – From Measurement to Judgement (the McMaster Report) would. (Flew, 2012, p. 22) |
| 2004 | Discursive | ‘Micky Mouse Degrees’ | The term was raised publicly by Minister of State for Universities Margaret Hodge, and the ongoing public discourse highlighted the tensions between perceived vocational and academic degrees, as well as the value differential between new universities and old universities. Creative industries and sectors were in the middle of this debate, as many of the degrees were associated with the entertainment industries, such as music, film and games. (See BBC Education News, 2003) |
| 2005 | AHRC (from AHRB) | ARHB becomes AHRC. | |
| 2005 | GENERAL ELECTION – Labour (Tony Blair) (majority by 66) | ||
| 2006 | Discursive | NESTA Report: Creating Growth: How the UK can develop world-class creative businesses | A report for policy makers attempting to provide an alternative model for measuring the performance of the creative industries in the United Kingdom. |
| 2007 | Discursive | The Work Foundation, Staying Ahead: The Economic Performance of the UK's Creative Industries | A report for policy makers attempting to provide an alternative model for conceptualising the creative industries in the United Kingdom, once that took the cultural sectors into account. |
| 2007 | Discursive | Global Financial Crisis of 2007/2008 | |
| 2007 | Structural | Department for Innovation, Unis and Skills | (DES + DTI = DIUS) created. Existed 2007–2009 |
| 2007 | Discursive | Culture and Creativity: The next 10 years | (Education, Cities driven by creativity. lookup quote) |
| 2008 | Discursive | Creative Britain: New Talents for the New Economy | ‘The vision is of a Britain in ten years' time where the local economies in our biggest cities are driven by creativity’ (DCMS, 2008, p. 8) Creative Industries Economic Estimates 2009 Digital Britain Implementation Plan – August 2009 |
| 2009 | Structural | BIS created | Department for Business, Innovation and Skills created (DIUS + BERR = BIS). Existed 2009–2016 |
| 2009 | Discursive | White paper: Higher Ambitions: the future of universities in a knowledge economy | Lead author was Lord John Browne. |
Policy Table 3.
2010–2017.
| Year | Selectivity | Title | Notes, Discourses, Quotes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2010 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservative win (David Cameron) (coalition government) | Conservatives get into government in coalition with the LibDems (David Cameron) |
| 2010 | Discursive | The Browne Report | Securing a sustainable future for higher education: an independent review of higher education funding and student finance, Lord John Browne |
| 2010 | Discursive/Agency | ACE: Great Art and Culture for Everyone: 10-year strategic framework. This 10-year framework pre-empted a new strategy that the new incoming ACE Chief Executive Darren Henley pushed forward in 2014, having been commissioned in 2011 by DCMS and DoE to undertake an independent review of the funding and delivery of music education in England. In the years before, under Labour, he was influential, having chaired a music advocacy group set up the then Education minister Andrew Adonis between 2007 and 2019. This continued in his role co-chairing with then Schools Minister Liz Truss and Ed Vaizey, the government's Cultural Education Board. | ‘Public Bodies Reform – Proposals for Change’. Known as ‘Bonfire of the Quangos’. Following (relevant) bodies were considered for abolition or mergers: Advisory Council on Libraries, Design Council, NESTA, Museums, Libraries and Archives Council, UK Film Council, The Theatres Trust, Ofcom, National Lottery Commission, Regional Development Agencies. (DCMS, 2010) The Design Council became an independent charity, merged with the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE). UK Film Council (established 20,000) closed on 31 March 2011, with many of its functions passing to the British Film Institute, sponsored by DCMS. NESTA (established 1998) ceased to be a non-departmental public body and became an independent registered charity. All nine regional development agencies (RDAs) were abolished, with remit given to local councils and local enterprise partnerships (LEPs) (without existing funding transferred) |
| 2010 | Govt/DCMS | Bonfire of the Quangos | |
| 2011 | Structural | The Design Council closed. UK Film Council (established 2000) closed. | |
| 2012 | Structural | NESTA (established 1998) became an independent charity. Regional development agencies (RDAs) closed. Museums, Libraries and Archives Council (MLA) closed. Museums were moved to the remit of the Arts Council England. | |
| 2012 | Discursive | London Olympics | |
| 2013 | Discursive | Nesta: A Manifesto for the Creative Economy. | |
| 2014 | Agency | Darren Henley was announced new Chief Executive of Arts Council England | Darren Henley succeeded Alan Davey as Chief Executive of the Arts Council England. |
| 2015 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservative win (Cameron – May) (majority – 12) | |
| 2016 | Structural | Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy created (BIS=>BEIS). 2016 – present. | |
| 2016 | Discursive | Nesta: The Geography of Creativity in the UK. 2 (Mateos-Garcia, J. & Bakshi, H.) | |
| 2016 | Discursive | Nesta: Cultural policy in the time of the creative industries | |
| 2016 | Discursive | The Govt DCMS The Culture White Paper | |
| 2016 | Discursive | ACE and 64 Million Artists | Report on Everyday Creativity: from Great Art and Culture for Everyone, to Great Art and Culture by, with and for Everyone. |
| 2016 | Structural | EU Referendum (‘Brexit’) | For the next year, public discourse would be almost solely about our relationship with the EU, including sector-specific discourses. Creative Industries largely expressed anxieties about its ability for the live, performing and touring sectors. |
| 2017 | Structural | DCMS Creative Industry Strategy | |
| 2017 | Discursive | CIF Global Talent Report (Creative Industries Federation) | |
| 2017 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservative win (Theresa May/Boris Johnson) (minority government, majority – 5) | |
| 2019 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservative win (Boris Johnson) (majority by 80) | |
| 2017 | Structural | DCMS renamed to Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. 3 Increased focus on the digital sector, which is now conceptualised firmly within the creative industries | |
| 2017 | Discursive | Govt/Canelo Bazalgette: Independent Review of the Creative Industries | Report. Government-commissioned report by Canelo. 4 |
| 2017 | Discursive | BIS: Creative Industries Strategy 5 | Industrial strategy: Building a Britain fit for the future |
| 2017 | Discursive | CEBR/ACE CEBR: Contribution of the arts and culture industry to the UK economy 6 | |
| 2017 | Discursive | ACE: Exploring the role of arts and culture in the creative industries. Arts Council commissioned report. | |
| 2019 | Agency | GENERAL ELECTION – Conservative win (Boris Johnson) (majority by 80) |