Absolute necessity entrepreneurs

, 196

Absolutism

, 183

Adult Population Survey (APS)

, 361, 379

Afghanistan

business environment

, 214

data and variables

, 219–223

descriptive statistics

, 216–217

gross domestic product (GDP)

, 214

individual level

, 219–223

institutional level

, 225–227

motivational factors

, 215

organizational culture

, 214

population

, 214

psychological factors

, 215

restaurant

, 214–215

societal level

, 223–225

Afghanistan women chamber of commerce and industry (AWCCI)

, 227

Africa

, 229–230, 338

Aḥmad Shāh-e Qājār reign (1909–1925)

, 174–176

Amirkabir University of Technology

, 323

Bangladesh

, 356–357

Bartlette’s tests

, 216–218

Basic Package of Health Services (BPHS)

, 226

Bazaar economy

, 184

Behavioral/psychological approach

, 76

Big data

, 296

Blau index

, 63–65

Brazil

, 3–4, 8, 39, 84

business activity characteristics

, 205–207

economic sustainability

, 201

employers and self-employed

, 200–201

entrepreneurial activities

, 192–193, 202

labor market

, 197–200

National Register of Legal Entities

, 207–208

necessity vs. opportunity

, 193–197

self-employment

, 192, 204–205, 208

sociodemographic characteristics

, 203–204

types, entrepreneurs

, 194–196

variation patterns

, 202–203

Bulgaria

, 255, 285

Burt’s theory

, 270

Canada

, 320

Case study methodology

, 17

Chaotic absolutism

, 173–174

Chile women’s entrepreneurial activity

, 86

China

, 4, 80, 364, 367

Adult Population Survey (APS)

, 361

business activities

, 358–361

career experiences

, 112

chi-square

, 362

cultural values

, 119

descriptive analyses

, 363

economic development

, 357–358

emancipation perspective

, 121–122

entrepreneurial competencies

, 358–361

entrepreneurial resilience

, 122

formal and informal financing

, 42–43

gendered work ideology

, 119–121

gender inequity

, 112

gender role theory

, 42

generational culture

, 118–119

Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)

, 357

global financial crisis

, 357

goodness-of-fit model

, 364

government policies

, 358

guanxi network

, 114–115

male-dominated entrepreneurial community

, 121–122

market-oriented economy

, 112

mass entrepreneurship

, 357–358

meso-level contextual influences

, 111

national entrepreneurial development

, 115–117

negotiations, women entrepreneurs vs. societal influences

, 121

preentrepreneurial work experience

, 113–115

regional culture

, 118

social networks

, 360

state-owned enterprises

, 113

transitional economies

, 358

Coding

, 254–255

Communication Theory of Resilience

, 122

Confirmatory factor analysis

, 222

Constitutional Charter

, 172–173

Constitutionalism

, 173–174

Constitutional Revolution

, 180–181

Content analysis

, 254–256, 268, 281

Context dependency

females’ access, entrepreneurial capital

, 376–377

institutional support

, 377–378

Contextual effect, country status

economic status

, 62

environmental quality

, 61

gender diversity variable

, 62–63

marginal benefit

, 63

Control variables

, 380

Corporate entrepreneurship

correlation variables

, 131, 133–134

ease of doing business

, 138

labor freedom predictive margins

, 136, 138

logistic regressions

, 133, 136

opportunity recognition predictive margins

, 133, 136–137

perceived skills predictive margins

, 133, 136–137

Corporate social responsibility

, 52

COVID-19

, 5, 7, 103, 106, 154, 310, 356

Creative destruction process

, 76

Crowdfunding

, 296, 327–328

Cultural context

, 232

Cultural-driven triangulation

, 184–186

Cultural factors

, 234

Culture sensitivity

, 223–224

Daneshvar, Nazanin

, 324–325

Data mining

, 254–255

Deinstitutionalization program

, 180

Digital imaging

, 296

Digital Immigrants

, 295–296

Digital Natives (DNs)

, 302–303

defined

, 295–296

entrepreneurial capacity (EC)

, 297

entrepreneurial intention (EI)

, 297, 304–305

Middle East and North Africa (MENA)

, 297

Digital Natives in Kuwait (DNK)

, 307–309

Digital Natives in Serbia (DNS)

, 307–309

3D printing

, 296

Dynamic endogeneity

, 51

Dynamic entity

, 335–336

Dynamic panel data (DPD) model

, 51, 54, 56, 59

Economic development status

, 50

Economic empowerment

, 396

Economic growth

, 3–4

The Education of Women

, 168–169

Efficiency-based economy

, 229–230

Emission reduction score (Emis. Score)

, 54, 58

Entrepreneurial activity

, 127–128

country-level factors

, 129–130

individual factors

, 127–128

Entrepreneurial capacity (EC)

, 297

Entrepreneurial capital

, 376–377

Entrepreneurial cognition

, 41–42

Entrepreneurial creativity

, 92

Entrepreneurial ecosystem, Iran

, 318

digital entrepreneurs

, 323–324

freelancers

, 319–320

Iran

, 319–321

qualitative research

, 322–323

start-up

, 320

teams

, 320

Entrepreneurial financing

, 42–43

Entrepreneurial growth

, 248

Entrepreneurial incentives

, 94–95

female entrepreneurship conditions

, 97–99

individual characteristics

, 97–99

need-driven entrepreneurship

, 95–96

prospect-driven entrepreneurship

, 95–96

support mechanism

, 97

Entrepreneurial intention (EI)

, 36, 41–42, 79, 297

Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ)

, 302–303

Entrepreneurial mindset (EM)

, 295–296, 302–303, 305–306

Digital Natives (DN)

, 304–305

factors

, 309–310

Entrepreneurial orientation (EO)

, 179

Entrepreneurial performance

, 43–44

Entrepreneurial traits

, 223

Environmental performances

, 49–50

fixed effects (FEs)

, 59–60

gender diversity, developed/developing countries

, 62–63

Environmental sustainability

, 52

Environment, social, and governance (ESG) data

, 53

Equity investment

, 296

Ethiopia

, 270

European Union (EU)

, 356

Expectancy theory

, 374–375

Facebook

, 298

Factor-based economy

, 229–230

Family norms, Iran

, 238

Female Emirati entrepreneurs

, 14

entrepreneurial education

, 20

initiated product and process innovation

, 20–28

innovative vision

, 16, 19–21, 28

limitations

, 30

marketing innovations

, 28

networking

, 29

new technology

, 20

off-the-job training

, 28

organizational innovations

, 28

R&D

, 28

risk-taking attitude

, 29

women-owned SMEs

, 19–20

Female entrepreneurship

, 36, 39–41

behavioral/psychological approach

, 76

business and types

, 94

competencies

, 78–79

creative destruction process

, 76

entrepreneurial incentives. See also Entrepreneurial incentives

, 94–99

entrepreneurial talent

, 78

formal institution

, 80

GCC countries

, 99–103

informal institution

, 77

institutional economic theory

, 77

Kuwait

, 101–103

Latin America. See also Latin America

, 73–74, 80–81, 83, 86–87

noncapital demanding sectors

, 92–94

psychological traits

, 76–77

society and media

, 75

sociodemographic characteristics vs. entrepreneurial activity

, 74

total early-stage entrepreneurial activity (TEA)

, 92–93

transaction costs

, 77–78

trends and challenges

, 94

Female networks

, 337–338

Female-owned small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)

, 15–16, 18–19, 43–44

Female total entrepreneurial activity rate (TEA)

, 39

Feminist institutionalization

, 185–186

Fixed effects (FEs)

, 50

correlation matrix

, 54, 58

DPD model

, 54, 56, 59

emission reduction score

, 61

environmental performance

, 59–60

gender diversity

, 59–60

Hansen J-test

, 59, 61

profitability

, 61

statistics

, 54, 57

system-GMM estimator

, 56, 59

time-invariant country-specific effects

, 56

transmission mechanism

, 56

variables

, 54–56

Formal financing

, 43

France

, 286

Frontier markets

, 296

Gender asymmetries. See Female entrepreneurship

Gender Development Index (GDI)

, 36–38

Gender differences

, 301

Gender diversity

, 50, 66

environmental impact

, 51, 53

environmental performances, developed/developing countries

, 62–63

firms’ board of directors

, 53

fixed effects (FEs)

, 59–60

quality and intensity

, 53

Refinitive Eikon database

, 53

robustness analysis

, 63–65

Gendered social capital. See also Turkey

, 252–253

Gendered work ideology

, 119–121

Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)

, 36–38, 74

Gender equality

, 247–248, 254

Gender gaps

, 3–6, 329

entrepreneurship

, 300–302

Iran

, 229–230

Gender inequality

, 35–36, 112, 301, 329

Gender roles

China

, 112–113

developing countries

, 36–37, 40–41, 44

disadvantages, women entrepreneurs

, 44

entrepreneurial cognition

, 41–42

entrepreneurial financing

, 42–43

entrepreneurial performance

, 43–44

female entrepreneurship

, 36, 39–41

GDI

, 37–38

GEM

, 37–38

inequality

, 35–36

intention/entry/business

, 36

Germany

, 286, 320

Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)

, 3–4, 92, 126, 229–230, 255, 322, 379

Adult Population Survey (APS)

, 361

China

, 357

necessity vs. opportunity

, 194

Global Innovation Index (GII)

, 103

Global Investable Market Indexes (GIMI)

, 296

Global financial crisis

, 356

business activities

, 358–361

China

, 357

COVID-19

, 356

entrepreneurial competencies

, 358–361

gross domestic product (GDP)

, 361–362

opportunity alertness

, 359

opportunity perception

, 361

Goodness-of-fit model

, 222, 364

Greece

, 359

Gross domestic product (GDP)

Afghanistan

, 214

global financial crisis

, 361–362

Growth ambitions

, 374–375, 378

Growth aspiration

, 382–383

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries

, 106

business in

, 100–101

economies

, 100

SMEs

, 99, 103

Hatami, Aseyeh

, 323

Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM)

, 373

Human capital

, 252–253, 302

perceived opportunities

, 128

skills

, 127–128

Human development index (HDI)

, 37

Hypotheses testing

, 381–382

Hypothesized model

, 378

India

, 4, 356–357

entrepreneurial intention

, 41–42

women’s social networks

, 43–44

Industrialization, Persian economy

, 179

Informal financing

, 43

Information and communication technology (ICT)

, 44

Inheritance

, 224

Initial coin offerings (ICOs)

, 327–328

Innovation. See also Female Emirati entrepreneurs

, 13–15, 17, 373–375, 378

female-owned SMEs

, 15–16

vision

, 20

Instagram

, 298, 307, 309

Institutional economic theory

, 77

Institutional Revolution

, 180

Institutional support

, 377–378

Institutional theory

, 17

Institutional triangulation

, 184, 186

Instrumental variable approach

, 51

International Monetary Fund

, 254

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)

, 150–151

Iran

, 4, 317–318, 335–336

cultural context

, 232

customs and beliefs

, 327

entrepreneurial ecosystem

, 318–320

family norms

, 238

fear of failure

, 329

financial sanctions

, 230

funding

, 327–328

gender gaps

, 229–230

gender inequality

, 329

husband’s consent to work

, 239

masculine workplace

, 237

men’ manipulative behaviors

, 236

men’s sensitivity

, 239

Ministry of Cooperatives, Labor, and Social Welfare

, 234–235

networking activity

, 340

population

, 229–230

qualitative research

, 234–235

semitraditional society

, 238–239

sexual harassment

, 238

social expectations

, 327

social security

, 237–238

society’s perception

, 235–236

sociocultural circumstances

, 230

support networks

, 328–329

unemployment rate

, 229–230

women entrepreneurs

, 320–322

women entrepreneurship status

, 230, 232–234

women’s business activities

, 236

women’s responsibility, home

, 239

work–life balance

, 328

Iranian Businesswomen Association

, 340

IranSalary

, 323

Iraq

, 233

Japan

, 254

Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO)

, 216–218

Kauffman Foundation

, 302

Kazakhstan

, 255, 283

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA)

, 392

Kosovo, work–life balance (WLB)

, 161–162

Albanian-speaking countries

, 160–161

challenges, women entrepreneurs

, 146, 149–150

daily business operations

, 148

data collection

, 154

demographic data

, 150, 154, 157

difficulties, women entrepreneurs

, 154, 156–157

economic development

, 146

family members, business operations

, 157–158

financial benefits

, 150

limitations

, 162

marital status

, 158, 160

organizational environment

, 149

qualitative approach

, 150–151

sampling

, 151

Kuwait

, 105–106, 295–296

business in

, 102–103

Digital Natives (DN)

, 304–306

gender split

, 308

population

, 101–102

social and economic developments

, 102

social media

, 303

Labor freedom

, 129

predictive margins, corporate entrepreneurship

, 136, 138

Labor market, Brazil

degree of formalization

, 198

female entrepreneurship

, 199–200

GEM

, 198

Gini coefficient

, 197

informal economy

, 199

social inequalities

, 198

unemployment rate

, 198

LagEmis. Score

, 54, 58

Latin America

, 3–4, 229–230

business regulatory environment

, 129–130

control variables

, 131–132

corporate entrepreneurship activity

, 126

corporate entrepreneurship correlation variables

, 131, 133–134

corporate entrepreneurship rate overview

, 131, 133, 136

dependent variables

, 131–132

emerging economies

, 127

entrepreneurial behavior

, 126

family-related factors

, 126

female entrepreneurship

, 73–74, 80–81, 83, 86–87

GEM data

, 126, 130, 140

gender role

, 126

human capital

, 127–128

independent variables

, 131–132

labor freedom

, 129

labour market

, 81, 83, 87

means and standard deviation

, 131, 133

part-time factors

, 126

total entrepreneurial activity correlation variables

, 131, 133, 135

women’s participation, working population

, 125

Latifi, Tabassom

, 325–326

Lebanon

, 240–241

Liberal feminist theory

, 139

LinkedIn

, 298

Liquidity

, 296

Luxemburg

, 286

Madagascar

, 39, 229–230

Male-dominated entrepreneurial community

, 121–122

Male total entrepreneurial activity rate (TEA)

, 39

MamanPaz

, 325–326

Market-oriented economy

, 112

Masculine business environments

, 236

Mass entrepreneurship

, 357–358

Meerut Seva Samaj (MSS)

, 44

MENA region, R&D investments and innovation

, 15

Men’ manipulative behaviors

, 236

Men’s sensitivity

, 239

Meta-analysis

, 254–255

Mexico

, 3–4, 39

Microenterprises

, 371–372

Microfinance

, 392–394

women empowerment nexus and

, 394, 396–397, 399

women household financing and

, 396–397

Middle East and North Africa (MENA)

, 240–241, 286–287, 296–297, 372–373

capital differentials

, 378

early-stage female entrepreneurs

, 373

innovation and growth ambitions

, 375–378

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF)

, 254

Ministry of Cooperatives, Labor, and Social Welfare

, 234–235

Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD)

, 226–227

Moẓaffar-al-Din Shāh-e Qājār reign (1896–1907), constitutional revolution and women

, 172–173

Moḥammad-‘Ali Shāh-e Qājār reign (1907–1909)

, 173–174

Moḥammad Réżā Shāh-e Pahlavi reign (1941–1979)

, 179–181

Modern Persia, socio-historicism approach

absolutism

, 183

Aḥmad Shāh-e Qājār reign (1909–1925)

, 174–176

Bazaar economy

, 184

ecosystemic factors

, 184–185

feminist institutionalization

, 185–186

formal rules

, 167–168

Incumbent Islamic Republic (1979–Until Now)

, 181–183

informal constraints

, 167–168

institutional change

, 167–168

institutional history

, 167

institutional triangulation

, 184, 186

institution, definition

, 167–168

macro-level institutions

, 183

Moẓaffar-al-Din Shāh-e Qājār reign (1896–1907), constitutional revolution and women

, 172–173

Moḥammad-‘Ali Shāh-e Qājār reign (1907–1909)

, 173–174

Moḥammad Réżā Shāh-e Pahlavi reign (1941–1979)

, 179–181

Nāṣer al-Dīn Shāh-e Qājār reign (1848–1896), revolutionary will and women incubation

, 168–172

patriarchal gender contract

, 183–184

Persian identity and mentality

, 165–166

religio-conservative male-dominant culture

, 166–167

Réżā Shāh-e Pahlavi reign (1925–1941)

, 176–179

sex division, labor

, 184

social intention

, 166–167

sociopolitical economy

, 184–185

women domesticity

, 183–184

Motivational factors

, 217–218

MSCI Index

, 296

National Action Plan on Gender Equality

, 254

National entrepreneurial development

, 115–117

National Entrepreneurship Context Index (NECI)

, 233

National Expert Survey (NES)

, 379

Need-driven entrepreneurship

, 95–96

Neoliberal economic programs

, 83–84

Nāṣer al-Dīn Shāh-e Qājār reign (1848–1896), revolutionary will and women incubation

, 168–172

Netherland

, 286

Network composition

, 343–344

Networking. See Social networks

Network Visualization Co-occurrence Map

, 269

New technology-based firms (NTBFs)

, 319–320

Niknam, Nikoo

, 326

Nordics

, 372–373

capital differentials

, 378

early-stage female entrepreneurs

, 373

innovation and growth ambitions

, 375–378

North America

, 286–287

need-driven and prospect-driven entrepreneurship

, 95–96

NVIVO 10

, 18–19

Online reputation assessment

, 296

Open-source software

, 296

Opportunity-alertness

, 78–79, 359

Opportunity recognition

, 357

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

, 371–372

Organizational dynamics

, 248

Organizational innovation

, 16, 18–19

Pakistan

, 42–43, 403–404

data analysis

, 401–403

economic empowerment

, 396, 400

empowerment

, 400

familial empowerment

, 400

microfinance

, 392–394, 396–397, 399

monetary investment rate

, 393–394

nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

, 392–393

personal empowerment

, 400

political empowerment

, 396, 400

population

, 391–392

questionnaire instrument

, 399

social empowerment

, 396, 400

State Bank of Pakistan (SBP)

, 393–394

well-being

, 396

women empowerment nexus

, 394, 396–397

women household financing

, 396–397

Patriarchal cultural hegemony

, 183–184, 186

Persian carpet industry

, 176

Persian Constitutional Law

, 172

Persian oil nationalization

, 179–180

Philippines

, 3–4

Policymakers

, 5–6

Political empowerment

, 396

Preentrepreneurial work experience

, 113–115

Proletarianization

, 179

Prospect-driven entrepreneurship

, 95–96

protectionism policy

, 170

Proto-capitalistic behavior

, 175–176

Psychological factors

, 218

Qatar

, 39, 229–230, 240–241

Qājār dynasty

, 170–171

Regional gender equality

, 37

Re-institutionalization progra

, 180

Relative necessity entrepreneurs

, 195

Reliability test

, 218

Refinitive Eikon database

, 53

Resource allocation

, 374

Resource-based view (RBV)

, 16

Réżā Shāh-e Pahlavi reign (1925–1941)

, 176–179

Risk-propensity

, 78–79

Risk-taking behavior

, 52–53

Robustness analysis, gender diversity

, 63–65

Rogers’s model

, 17

Role-modeling

, 78–80

Root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA)

, 222

Rural Women Unit

, 254

Russia

, 285

Saudi Arabia

, 39, 229–230, 240–241

Saudi women entrepreneurs

, 101

Self-confidence

, 338, 357–359

Self-efficacy

, 78–79, 309

Self-employment

, 5, 85–86, 114, 200, 204–205, 208

Semitraditional society

, 238–239

Serbia

, 295–296

Digital Natives (DN)

, 304–306

gender split

, 308

social media

, 306

Sexual discrimination

, 236

Sexual harassment

, 238

Shayegh, Narges

, 325

Slovenia

, 346

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). See also Female Emirati entrepreneurs

, 6, 13–14, 18, 397–398

characteristics

, 18–19

COVID-19 pandemic

, 104, 106–107

female-owned

, 15–16

GCC countries

, 99, 103

implications

, 29–30

Small businesses’ innovation

, 14

Social acceptance

, 236

Social actors

, 375–376

Social capital

, 247–248, 302, 338

decision-making mechanisms

, 253

defined

, 248, 252

gendered

, 252–253

structural holes

, 270

women entrepreneurs and

, 253–254

Social embeddedness

, 373

Social empowerment

, 396

Social feminism

, 252–253

Socialized gender role

, 36–37

Social media

, 296–297, 300, 303

Social networking sites (SNSs)

, 298

Social networks

, 247–248, 345, 348, 376–377

advantages

, 345

China

, 360

context

, 339–340

data analysis

, 341

female’s businesses

, 339

network composition

, 343–344

networking challenges

, 344–345

research approach

, 341

role of networks

, 342–343

sample and data collection

, 341

women’s entrepreneurship

, 337–338

Social security

, 237

limitations

, 237–238

Society’s perception

, 235–236

Socioeconomic performance

, 248

South Asia

, 214

Southeast Europe

, 296

Spain

, 39, 283–284

Sri Lanka

, 240–241

State-owned enterprises

, 113

Sub-saharan Africa

, 95–96

Sweden

, 283–284

Switzerland

, 286

Syria

, 233

System-GMM estimator

, 51

Tata Consultancy Services

, 296–297

Tobacco Régie (1891–1892)

, 169

Total entrepreneurial activity (TEA)

, 3–4, 92–93, 95–96, 192, 340, 356–357

correlation variables

, 131, 133, 135

individual characteristics

, 97–99

logistic regressions

, 133, 136–137

Total establishing entrepreneurial activity (TEE)

, 192

Turkey

, 247, 249, 271, 280, 283–284, 320

bureaucratic procedures

, 251

cluster comparison

, 282

coding

, 254–255

content analysis

, 254–255, 281

education system

, 251

entrepreneurial behavior and attitudes

, 281–285

entrepreneurial framework conditions

, 285–287

entrepreneurial intention

, 41–42

factor analysis

, 249–250, 281

formal and nonformal education programs

, 251

gendered social capital

, 252–253

Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)

, 255

limitations

, 287–288

male-dominated discourse

, 270–281

Network Visualization Co-occurrence Map

, 269

quantitative analysis

, 254–255

social capital

, 252–254

women entrepreneurship

, 249

women entrepreneurs problems

, 250–251

Twitter

, 298

UNEP’s Global Resources Outlook

, 51, 53

United Arab Emirates (UAE)

, 6, 13–16, 101

United Nations (UN)

, 393–394

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development’s (UNCTAD’s)

, 324–325

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs)

, 7, 52, 92

United States

, 39, 356

Vafaey, Lena

, 326

Variance inflation factors (VIFs)

, 54

Venture capital (VC) funds

, 320

Vietnam

, 3–4

Village-level savings groups (VSLAs)

, 226–227

Voluntary entrepreneurs

developed environment

, 195

poor environment

, 195

White Revolution

, 180

Women domesticity

, 183–184

Women Economic Empowerment Rural Development program (WEE-RDP)

, 226–227

Women empowerment

, 44

Women engagement

, 3

Women household financing

, 396–397

Women insecurity

, 223–224

Women’s business activities

, 236

Work–life balance

, 328

World Bank

, 214, 254, 300, 392

World Economic Forum

, 233

Yemen

, 233

YouTube

, 307–309