Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the behavior of self-disclosure among Saudi women and men in an attempt to understand gender differences in language. The study also gives insights about the cultural norms and how they affect language production.
Design/methodology/approach
The author utilized Levi-Belz and Kreiner's (2019) three-dimensional tool of self-disclosure; namely, the HOW MUCH dimension, the WHAT dimension and the HOW dimension. The HOW MUCH dimension is measured through word count of self-disclosure and the duration of self-disclosure in spoken discourse. The WHAT dimension is measured through analyzing the topics, emotions and social actors that are discussed during self-disclosure episodes. The HOW dimension is measured through examining the acoustic features of self-disclosure such as intonation, loudness and fluency.
Findings
Saudi women tend to engage in more self-disclosure than Saudi men, and their self-disclosure tends to be longer and more detailed. Women also tend to use more intonation variability and softer loudness, reflecting the cultural norms of politeness and reservation. Both genders tend to use similar frequencies of positive and negative emotion words in their self-disclosure, with positive emotion words correlating more with personal self-disclosure and negative emotion words with self-disclosures about loss, failure, conflict, rejection and uncertainty. The data also show that the use of reflective verbs leads to more authentic and empathetic communication and that pronoun use correlates with the type of emotional experience being discussed.
Research limitations/implications
This study has limitations due to a small sample size. Future research should use larger and diverse samples to explore self-disclosure in Saudi televised interviews comprehensively. The study focused solely on televised interviews; future research can examine self-disclosure across various media platforms. Findings have practical implications for Saudi media and policymakers. Understanding self-disclosure in interviews can guide content creation, fostering open communication. Presenters consciously act as role models, influencing Saudi youth, emphasizing the role of positive self-presentation.
Originality/value
This study utilized Levi-Belz and Kreiner's (2019) three-dimensional tool of self-disclosure in a way that could be used for other languages and cultures. The study examines the Saudi cultural norms in self-disclosure, which has never been tackled before.
Keywords
Citation
Al Mufarreh, R. (2023), "How much, what and how: three-dimensional discourse analysis of Saudi women and men's self-disclosure", Saudi Journal of Language Studies, Vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 200-219. https://doi.org/10.1108/SJLS-04-2023-0016
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2023, Raniah Al Mufarreh
License
Published in Saudi Journal of Language Studies. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
1. Introduction
Self-disclosure, as defined by Jourard (1971) and elaborated upon by Cortés-Conde and Boxer (2010), involves revealing personal information and encompasses both verbal and nonverbal forms. It fulfills a fundamental human need to share thoughts and feelings with others, contributing to a clear and intimate understanding of oneself.
The benefits of self-disclosure, highlighted by Jourard (1971) and Yalom and Leszcz (2005) include self-awareness, catharsis and therapeutic relief. Sharing personal experiences can lead to emotional release, healing and personal growth, fostering validation, support and a sense of shared humanity.
Additionally, Farber (2006) underscores how self-disclosure promotes intimacy and trust, creating connections and deepening bonds between individuals, ultimately enhancing understanding and closeness in relationships and groups.
2. Scope of the study
This study explores the intricacies of self-disclosure among Saudi women and men in a televised interview program, Al-Liqaa Min Al Sifr. By utilizing Kreiner and Levi-Belz's (2019) three-dimensional tool of self-disclosure, I examine the linguistic, cultural and social dimensions of self-disclosure to shed light on the complexities and nuances that underlie interpersonal communication in the specific cultural context of Saudi Arabia.
Saudi Arabia's sociocultural landscape, blending tradition, religion and modernity, shapes self-disclosure expectations for men and women. This study explores gender discourse patterns to understand Saudi self-disclosure. The findings contribute to interpersonal communication and cultural studies, revealing factors like topics, word count, response duration, intonation, loudness, fluency, emotion words, verbs and pronouns. These insights enrich communication, gender and cultural studies.
3. Literature review
3.1 Self-disclosure and social penetration theory
Social penetration theory (SPT) is a communication theory developed by Altman and Taylor (1973). It seeks to explain how interpersonal relationships develop and evolve over time through the process of self-disclosure. The theory suggests that as individuals engage in communication and interact with one another, they gradually reveal more personal and intimate information about themselves, leading to a deeper level of connection and understanding.
According to SPT, self-disclosure drives relationships from surface to intimate levels with two dimensions: breadth and depth. Breadth covers various life aspects like hobbies, work and beliefs. Depth relates to intimacy, including fears, dreams and vulnerabilities, deepening as trust grows.
Altman and Taylor (1973) also identified several factors that influence the rate and extent of self-disclosure. These factors include social norms, cultural values, individual personality traits and the stage and context of the relationship.
The present study examines how men and women in Saudi Arabia use self-disclosure in televised programs as a means to represent themselves and bond with their community, particularly considering the recent changes in Saudi Arabia.
3.2 Self-disclosure and gender
Previous research on gender differences in self-disclosure, such as studies by Jourard and Lasakow (1958) and Paluckaitė and Žardeckaitė-Matulaitienė (2012), suggested that women tend to disclose more personal information than men, potentially due to societal and gender role expectations. Good and Sanchez (2010) found differences in communal behavior motivation, with women showing higher motivation, aligning with societal femininity norms.
Jourard (1971) attributed these differences to societal expectations, where men are expected to be emotionally restrained, while women are encouraged to express emotions. Wan et al. (2009) found that gender norms influence self-presentation in adolescents, with females emphasizing lowered sexuality and males adhering to traditional gender stereotypes.
O'Connell and Kowal (2005) studied speech patterns and observed that men have longer silent pauses. Karremans et al. (2011) found that in close relationships, women tend to self-disclose more, but in less intimate ones, gender differences diminish or reverse. Cozby (1973) and Goodstein and Reinecker (1974) reported mixed results in gender differences in self-disclosure.
Personality traits also play a role, with Egloff et al. (2006) showing that extraverted women disclose more, but extraverted men do not significantly differ from introverted men.
In same-gender communication, Rubin (1983) highlighted self-disclosure's role in female friendships, while Lampert and Ervin-Tripp (2006) noted women use humor for self-disclosure in female groups. DeCapua et al. (2006) found self-disclosure prevalent among women, even in less close groups, often employing self-denigration to build rapport.
These studies reveal how societal influences, gender roles and personality traits impact self-disclosure, offering insights into gender-specific patterns in televised programs.
3.3 Self-disclosure and culture
The historical context of gender segregation in Saudi Arabia (Baki, 2004) has traditionally influenced public and private life. However, Vision 2030’s efforts to promote gender equality and societal transformations have made televised programs a medium for highlighting evolving changes.
In the context of self-disclosure, Almakrami's (2015) study on self-disclosure across cultures revealed that cultural factors significantly influence self-disclosure patterns on platforms like Facebook. In Saudi Arabia, where offline relationship development faces social restrictions, individuals tend to exhibit open self-disclosure on Facebook for initiating friendships, while Australians, facing fewer offline restrictions, maintain conservative behaviors on Facebook.
Al-Jehani's (1994) research focused on verbal self-disclosure in a Middle Eastern Arab community, highlighting gender differences in topical priorities and target preferences. It revealed a generally low level of verbal self-disclosure, particularly among females, reflecting the unique sociocultural context of the community. These insights inform the understanding of self-disclosure behaviors in Saudi televised programs.
AlQadheeb and Alsalloum's (2021) study examined self-disclosure on social networking sites (SNSs) among Saudi users, emphasizing how cultural factors and societal expectations influence these behaviors. Their findings uncovered factors like convenience, relationship building, enjoyment and self-presentation as influencers. This research provides insights into the self-disclosure patterns of Saudi individuals in televised programs and emphasizes the role of cultural dynamics, privacy concerns, trust and user control mechanisms in shaping self-disclosure behaviors.
3.4 Self-disclosure in public televised programs and social networking sites (SNSs)
Public televised programs, recognized as platforms for self-expression and storytelling (Papacharissi and Mendelson, 2007), often involve one-to-many communication, encouraging participants to disclose private details for attention, validation or entertainment (Joinson, 2008).
In contrast, SNSs like Facebook and Instagram offer interactive and personalized platforms for self-disclosure, influenced by factors such as online anonymity, impression management and social norms (Schouten et al., 2007). Users use self-disclosure to strengthen social connections, seek emotional support and construct their online identity (Trepte and Reinecke, 2013).
Sheldon's (2013) study on gender differences in online self-disclosure reveals women tend to disclose more to face-to-face and Facebook friends, while men disclose more to recently added Facebook friends.
Comparing both platforms, we find that they offer opportunities for self-presentation and impression management (Bazarova and Choi, 2014). Public televised programs expose participants to a broad audience, raising privacy and repercussion concerns (Metzger et al., 2010), while SNSs allow users to control their audience but face privacy and security challenges (Utz and Krämer, 2009).
Exploring self-disclosure in televised programs like Al-Liqaa Min Al Sifr, I discover that they empower Saudi individuals to share personal narratives, experiences and emotions openly, challenging stereotypes and elevating their image.
4. Significance of the study
This study examines self-disclosure among Saudi women and men in the program Al-Liqaa Min Al Sifr, using Kreiner and Levi-Belz's (2019) tool. It sheds light on self-expression in Saudi televised programs, offering insights into media's role in shaping self-presentation. It also compares traditional media to SNSs. The study informs media practitioners and policymakers, echoing Gill's (2007) insights on media's societal impact. Furthermore, it explores cultural dynamics and media's potential for challenging gender norms, fostering a more inclusive media landscape. Given the scarcity of Saudi-specific self-disclosure research, this study addresses a research gap, considering Saudi Arabia's unique cultural context characterized by traditional values and religious influences.
5. Research questions
This study aims to explore the self-disclosure behaviors of Saudi women and men in televised interviews. Three main research questions will guide the investigation:
What is the breadth of self-disclosure in televised interviews of Saudi women and men, in terms of the range and variety of topics discussed?
How does the depth of self-disclosure differ between Saudi women and men in televised interviews, considering the level of intimacy and personal significance of the shared information?
What are the patterns of self-disclosure in televised interviews of Saudi women and men, and how do these patterns reflect cultural norms and societal expectations in the Saudi context?
6. Methodology
The methodology section of this study outlines the research design, data collection, and analytical approach used to investigate the self-disclosure of Saudi women and men in televised interviews. By employing a mixed-methods approach, I sought to comprehensively explore the breadth and depth of self-disclosure behaviors in the Saudi context.
6.1 Data
The data of the present study consist of 20 interviewees, 10 women and 10 men, who were guests in the Arabic program, Al-Liqaa Min Al Sifr, which translates into “Start from Scratch.” In each series of the program, one guest tells inspiring stories on how they started their success journey. The program is chosen for this study because it is a well-known program in the Arab world and it presents the brightest personalities of the Saudi society and the Arab world. The nature of the program allows guests to express themselves in a storytelling format leading to more instances of self-disclosure discourse. All guests in the randomly selected episodes are Saudi women and men. They are all above 30 years old. A list of the episodes used in this study is shown in Appendix 1.
6.2 Tool
This study uses Kreiner and Levi-Belz's (2019) three-dimensional self-disclosure tool to explore how Saudi women and men utilize self-disclosure for building connections and strengthening community bonds. This tool assesses self-disclosure in terms of word count and duration (HOW MUCH), topics and emotions shared (WHAT) and acoustic features like intonation and fluency (HOW).
This tool was chosen for its suitability in analyzing natural speech, objectivity and real-time insights. While it could benefit from further computerization, this study employed manual assessment for accuracy.
6.2.1 Topics
In each interview, the researcher identified the instances of self-disclosures based on the topic discussed. The topics that are considered as self-disclosure are attitude, body, money, work, feelings, personal, interests, experience and unclassified. The topics are classified based on Tang and Wang's (2012) self-disclosure scale, which was developed based on Thurstone's (1925) type scale. Table 1 shows the definition of each topic.
After identifying instances of self-disclosure and classifying them based on their topics, other aspects have been analyzed and recorded in the form shown in Appendix 2.
6.2.2 Total word count
The length of self-disclosure extracts which is operationally defined as the number of words in each extract reflects the speaker's willingness to disclose information to others. In other words, it reflects the length of self-disclosure. Barak and Gluck-Ofri (2007) utilized total word count to measure the degree and reciprocity of self-disclosure in online forums and the same linguistic parameter is utilized in the present study. After transcribing all self-disclosure extracts, the total word count for each self-disclosure extract is determined through selecting the words in Microsoft Word and then the status bar shows the word count for the selection and for the entire document.
6.2.3 Response duration
Response duration refers to the length of time an interviewee spends engaging in self-disclosure during an interview. In the context of the study, response duration is measured in minutes and seconds. When analyzing self-disclosure extracts, the researchers track the amount of time interviewees dedicate in each self-disclosure extract.
6.2.4 Intonation variability
Several studies focused on intonation variability as an implicit indicator of emotions that cannot be expressed in words. Rochman et al. (2008) examined the vocal acoustical correlates of anger and sadness in women and found that anger is associated with larger intonation variability while sadness is associated with neutral intonation. In the present study, the acoustic analysis of self-disclosure includes determining intonation variability through the fundamental frequency F0 (Cooper and Sorensen, 2012). The researcher used Praat software to estimate the highest and lowest F0 to find out if intonation is neutral or largely variable in the speaker's voice while self-disclosing.
6.2.5 Loudness
Loudness refers to the auditory property of speech that allows listeners to decide where the speech is placed in a soft-loud scale (Ladefoged and Johnson, 2014). Linguistically, loudness is measured in decibels (dB) and depends on amplitude; the greater the amplitude the louder the speech is. Several studies investigated the correlation between emotions and loudness. Scherer et al. (2003) concluded that emotions such as anger and fear are associated with loud voice, whereas emotions of sadness and boredom are associated with soft and feeble voice. In this study, the researcher measures the loudness of voice in self-disclosure to figure out if loudness or softness is associated with self-disclosure on a scale of soft (55 dB), medium (65 dB) or loud (80 dB) using dB Meter iPhone application.
6.2.6 Speech fluency
Crystal (1987) defined fluency as using language in a rapid smooth and effortless way, whereas Ejzenberg (2000, p. 287) defined fluency in a more broader way to include the “overall language ability or proficiency that indicates the degree to which speech is articulated smoothly and continuously without any ‘unnatural’ breakdowns in flow.” In this study, speech fluency is measured by counting the number of silent pauses in each self-disclosure instant and measuring the duration of each silent pause. The more the pauses and the longer the silent pauses the less fluent the speaker is.
6.2.7 Emotion words
Languages differ greatly in the emotional lexicons than in the concrete lexicons. For example, the English language differentiates saliently between positive and negative emotions, whereas Polish differentiates between inside and outside in categorizing emotions (Dziwirek and Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (2010). Ekman (1992) classified emotions into six basic categories: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. Abdul-Mageed et al. (2016) used Ekman's (1992) 6 basic emotions to detect emotions in Arabic with the use of an automatic approach and human annotations. For the present study, the researcher divides Ekman's (1992) six basic emotions into positive and negative. Happiness and surprise falls under positive emotions and anger, disgust, fear and sadness are negative emotions. Table 2 shows the classification of emotion words used for this study with Arabic examples. Any part of speech that is related to the nouns provided in Table 2 is categorized as an emotion word.
6.2.8 Reflective verbs
Reflective verbs are used by speakers to express a thought, an idea or an opinion as a result of deep meditation. An example of these verbs are أفهم understand, أعتقد think, أحس feel and so on. The count of reflective verbs that work as governor in the sentences of each self-disclosure are counted. Table 3 gives examples of the reflective verbs that are popular in Arabic.
6.2.9 Pronouns
Arabic has two sets of pronouns: free pronouns that are written as separate words and bound pronouns that are suffixed to other words (Holes, 2004). Table 4 shows free and bound pronouns in Arabic.
In addition to the pronouns shown in Table 4, verbal sentences in modern standard Arabic MSA do not have free pronouns but rather have inflections in the verb for person, gender and number (Holes, 2004). For example,
Pronouns are counted in each self-disclosure extract to find out if participants tend to use self-centered (first-person) pronouns like I أنا or other-centered pronouns, second person and third person pronouns, like you أنت or they أنتم.
7. Analysis
In this section, I will conduct a comprehensive analysis of the self-disclosure extracts, classifying them based on the topics discussed. For each extract, I will examine total word counts, response duration, intonation variability, loudness, speech fluency, use of emotion words, reflective verbs and pronouns. By doing so, I aim to answer the research questions related to the breadth and depth of self-disclosure and identify patterns of self-disclosure during televised interviews of Saudi women and men on the program Al-Liqaa Min Al Sifr.
7.1 Topics
The data reveal that certain topics were more frequently disclosed by both women and men during the interviews. These topics include attitude, feelings, interests, experiences and unclassified matters. Figure 1 shows self-disclosure instances for each topic by both women and men and Table 5 shows the number of self-disclosure instances for each topic.
The breadth and depth of the disclosed topics, as shown in Figure 1, can further inform our understanding of the self-disclosure patterns. Attitudes, feelings, interests, experiences and unclassified matters were topics where the interviewees felt comfortable delving into deeper levels of self-disclosure. These topics encompassed a wide range of personal experiences, emotions, opinions and unique encounters. This suggests that the interviewees considered these areas to be significant aspects of their lives and were willing to openly discuss them in the televised interviews.
When I compare and contrast how women and men engage in self-disclosure for each topic, I find the following:
Attitude:
Both women and men demonstrated a relatively high level of self-disclosure in discussing their attitudes toward political matters, disasters and current events. With women having 36 instances and men having 34 instances, it is evident that both genders are comfortable expressing their opinions on these topics.
Body:
Self-disclosure about personal appearance, physique and well-being was limited, with 4 instances for women and 2 for men. This scarcity results from Saudi cultural norms and societal expectations. Saudi society highly values modesty and privacy, discouraging open discussions about body-related topics. Additionally, these subjects are seen as sensitive and intimate, further inhibiting disclosure, especially in televised interviews. Traditional gender roles in Saudi Arabia also downplay physical appearance in public discourse, reinforcing reserved self-disclosure among both genders.
Money:
Regarding financial matters and personal values, women had 4 instances, men had 6. Low self-disclosure about money on TV interviews is due to several factors. The program's focus and questions may not encourage financial discussions. Cultural norms in Saudi Arabia prioritize financial privacy, leading to hesitancy in disclosing personal financial details to the public.
Work:
In terms of views regarding events in the workplace, educational institutions or career pursuits, there were a relatively high number of self-disclosure instances. Women had 11 instances, while men had 15 instances. This indicates that both women and men are willing to share their experiences and thoughts related to their professional lives. The higher number of instances among men might be influenced by traditional gender roles and expectations in the Saudi society. Nevertheless, the presence of women sharing their work-related experiences on public TV reflects the increasing empowerment and visibility of women in professional domains.
Feelings:
Both women and men exhibited a relatively high level of self-disclosure in expressing their individual emotions, as well as feelings of sadness and joy. Women had 33 instances, while men had 31 instances. The relatively high frequency of self-disclosure regarding can be attributed to several factors.
First, emotions and personal feelings are universal human experiences that transcend cultural boundaries. Expressing emotions allows individuals to connect with others on a deeper level, fostering understanding and empathy (Yalom and Leszcz, 2005). In a society like Saudi Arabia, where interpersonal relationships and community bonds are highly valued, discussing one's feelings can serve as a means of building emotional connections and strengthening social ties.
Personal:
In terms of self-disclosure related to views on attraction and self-esteem, women had 1 instance, while men had 3 instances. The relatively low instances of self-disclosure concerning views on attraction and self-esteem can be attributed to the sensitive and personal nature of these topics. Given the public nature of the platform and the potential scrutiny from the audience, interviewees exercise caution and choose to limit their self-disclosure on these topics. Furthermore, the audience's awareness of the sensitivity of such topics may also influence the level of privacy and discretion expected from the interviewees. Consequently, the observed low instances of self-disclosure in relation to views on attraction and self-esteem may be indicative of the careful navigation of personal boundaries within the cultural context of Saudi Arabia.
Interests:
Both women and men exhibited a relatively high level of self-disclosure in discussing their personal hobbies and interests. Women had 31 instances, while men had 29 instances. This highlights the shared enthusiasm for sharing and discussing individual interests, regardless of gender. The high number of instances reflects the increasing acceptance of personal passions and interests as a part of one's identity in Saudi society.
Experiences:
In the realm of interviewees’ experiences with food, travel and shopping, both women and men exhibited a significant number of instances of self-disclosure. Women had 28 instances, while men had 26 instances. This reveals a shared inclination among both genders to openly share their experiences and engage in discussions related to these areas. The high number of instances indicates a growing culture of sharing personal experiences and recommendations, demonstrating a desire to actively contribute to conversations surrounding common experiences.
Unclassified:
In the category of unclassified topics, such as personal trivial matters, life events and encounters with the supernatural, both women and men exhibited a relatively high number of instances. Women had 23 instances, while men had 25 instances. The willingness to share personal experiences in these diverse and unclassified areas signifies a growing sense of comfort and openness among the interviewees to discuss various aspects of their lives, including personal anecdotes and supernatural encounters.
7.2 Total word count
The analysis found a positive correlation between word count and discussed topics for both genders. This means more self-disclosure on a topic resulted in more words. Participants shared more when comfortable with a topic, as seen in Figure 2. Topics like attitudes, feelings, interests, experiences and unclassified matters had both higher self-disclosure instances and word counts, indicating more expressive discussions. Conversely, less-disclosed topics like body and personal had fewer words, suggesting reluctance to elaborate.
7.3 Response duration
A quantitative analysis determined average response durations for self-disclosure by both genders. This involved measuring the time interviewees spent on self-disclosure per extract and calculating averages for women and men separately. Figure 3 displays the results. Response duration varied by topic, with highly disclosed topics having longer durations, signifying more elaboration. Conversely, topics with lower self-disclosure had shorter durations, indicating less detailed information shared.
7.4 Intonation variability
Intonation variability, a crucial acoustic feature in self-disclosure analysis, was examined using Praat software. Gender differences emerged in intonation patterns. Women, as seen in Figure 4, exhibited greater variability. This could be attributed to Saudi cultural norms encouraging women to express emotions openly, leading to a wider pitch range. Conversely, Figure 5 shows that men, socialized to be emotionally reserved, demonstrated lower intonation variability. This adheres to cultural expectations of emotional restraint.
7.5 Loudness
Voice loudness in self-disclosure was measured with a dB Meter app. Figure 6 shows men averaged 70 decibels, while women averaged 58 decibels, placing women in the soft category and men in the medium category. These differences stem from Saudi cultural norms. Women are socialized to speak politely and reservedly, resulting in lower loudness. In contrast, men, encouraged to be assertive, exhibit slightly louder self-disclosure.
7.6 Speech fluency
The analysis of speech fluency involved carefully listening to the recordings. Silent pauses lasting at least one second were identified, and the duration of each pause was measured by marking their beginning and end. The number and duration of these silent pauses were then calculated.
Women tended to use more filled pauses such as “um,” “uh” and “aa,” while men used more silent pauses. However, there was no difference in the frequency or duration of silent pauses between men and women.
The average duration of silent pauses was 0.80 s for men and 0.76 s for women. These findings are consistent with the results reported by O'Connell and Kowal (2005), where men had an average duration of 0.85 s for silent pauses, while women had an average duration of 0.77 s. Thus, it can be concluded that men tend to have slightly longer silent pauses compared to women.
7.7 Emotion words
The use of emotion words in self-disclosures relates to various topics discussed by the participants, including attitudes, feelings, interests, experiences and unclassified aspects. In the analysis, I found that the frequency of positive and negative emotion words was similar across these topics, resulting in a neutral overall tone in the self-disclosures.
Positive emotion words, such as “happiness,” “gratefulness” and “excitement,” were commonly used in personal self-disclosures related to happiness, love, gratitude, joy, excitement, pride, hope, serenity, inspiration and amusement. These positive emotions were likely expressed when discussing attitudes, feelings, interests, experiences and the unclassified topics.
On the other hand, negative emotion words were associated with self-disclosures that conveyed experiences characterized by loss, failure, conflict, rejection and uncertainty. These negative emotions have been expressed more when discussing topics related to attitudes, feelings and experiences.
7.8 Reflective verbs
The analysis of the data reveals a notable presence of reflective verbs, such as “I feelأشعر,” “I thinkأعتقد” and “I realize أدرك.” This finding aligns with Morton's (1978) perspective that self-disclosures often encompass reflective aspects as speakers share personal experiences in a descriptive, evaluative and affective manner. The use of reflective verbs in self-disclosure facilitates more authentic and empathetic communication as it allows others to better understand the speaker's perspective and establish deeper connections with them.
Examples of the reflective verbs identified in the data include phrases like:
These examples demonstrate how speakers express their thoughts, feelings and realizations using reflective verbs to provide insights into their personal experiences.
It is worth noting that speakers often employ reflective verbs multiple times within a sentence, emphasizing the depth of their introspection and the significance they attribute to their self-disclosures.
7.9 Pronouns
There was a correlation between the use of pronouns and the presence of emotion words and reflective verbs. The data revealed that speakers tended to use more first person singular pronouns when discussing painful and sad experiences, while second and third person pronouns were more commonly used when discussing positive experiences.
Specifically, first person pronouns such as “Iأنا ” and “myself نفسي” were frequently paired with negative emotion words such as anger, disgust, fear and sadness. For example, one participant shared a story about her parents refusing to allow her to travel to America to pursue her BA. She expressed her sadness by using three first person pronouns in the sentence, emphasizing the impact of the decision on her personal experience as a girl. The use of these pronouns was accompanied by the negative emotion word “refuse,” highlighting the speaker's negative emotions related to the situation as seen in the following excerpt:
On the other hand, second and third person pronouns such as “you أنت ” and “they هم ” were observed in conjunction with positive emotion words like happiness and surprise. For instance, a participant shared a positive experience of being prepared for a role as an English language supervisor. In this case, the speaker used third person pronouns multiple times to convey a positive state of being as seen in the excerpt below:
This finding aligns with a study by Chung and Pennebaker (2007), which found that first person pronouns were associated with negative emotional states, while second and third person pronouns were associated with positive emotional states. The tendency to use more first person singular pronouns when experiencing emotional or physical pain has been observed in previous research (Rude et al., 2004), indicating that individuals allocate attention to themselves and their personal experiences during such challenging moments.
8. Discussion
This study aimed to examine the breadth and depth of self-disclosure in televised interviews of Saudi women and men. The findings provide valuable insights into the patterns and themes of self-disclosure within the specific cultural context of Saudi Arabia.
8.1 Breadth of self-disclosure
The televised interviews revealed extensive self-disclosure by Saudi women and men. They openly shared their personal lives, emotions and beliefs, covering topics like family, relationships, career, aspirations and challenges. This breadth of self-disclosure indicates their willingness to communicate transparently, offering insights into their experiences.
Both women and men displayed similar breadth in self-disclosure. While some variations existed, such as women discussing attitudes, feelings and interests slightly more and men focusing more on work and money, the overall picture suggests a commitment to self-expression and fostering understanding.
These findings echo prior self-disclosure research (e.g. Altman and Taylor, 1973), emphasizing the significance of sharing various life aspects. The participants' readiness to reveal across multiple domains reflects their dedication to connecting with the audience.
8.2 Depth of self-disclosure
Regarding the depth of self-disclosure, the analysis of topic-specific instances revealed no significant gender differences. Both Saudi women and men exhibited similar levels of intimacy and personal significance in the shared information. The frequency of self-disclosure instances within each topic category was comparable between women and men. For example, attitudes, feelings, interests and personal experiences were topics in which both genders disclosed at similar rates. These findings indicate that gender does not play a significant role in the depth of self-disclosure in televised interviews among Saudi women and men.
The absence of gender differences in the depth of self-disclosure challenges previous research findings that suggested women tend to disclose more personal information than men (Jourard and Lasakow, 1958; Paluckaitė and Žardeckaitė-Matulaitienė, 2012). In the context of televised interviews in Saudi Arabia, the observed similarity in self-disclosure depth highlights the potential influence of cultural factors and societal shifts in shaping disclosure behaviors. The changing sociocultural landscape of Saudi Arabia, characterized by recent empowerment efforts and increased visibility of women in public spaces, contributed to the convergence in self-disclosure patterns between women and men.
8.3 Patterns of self-disclosure
The analysis of self-disclosure in Saudi televised interviews reveals key insights into communication dynamics. A positive correlation exists between word count and discussed topics, indicating that individuals elaborate more on comfortable subjects, driven by personal significance and willingness to share.
Response duration varies by topic, with more extensive self-disclosure leading to longer responses, enriching the disclosure experience. Intonation patterns show women's greater variability, aligning with cultural norms promoting emotional expressiveness. Conversely, men exhibit restraint in pitch changes, in line with expectations of emotional reserve.
Women use more filled pauses, while men employ silent ones, reflecting individual speaking styles rather than gender. Emotion words appear neutrally across topics, fostering open emotional expression. Reflective verbs offer deeper insights into personal experiences, indicating introspection.
Pronoun use mirrors emotional tone, with first person singular pronouns in sad experiences and second/third person pronouns in positive ones. This aligns with prior research on pronoun usage and emotions (Chung and Pennebaker, 2007).
This study provides a thorough analysis of self-disclosure patterns in Saudi televised interviews, highlighting cultural influences on communication dynamics. It underscores the importance of considering cultural norms and societal expectations in interpreting communication behaviors.
9. Limitations and implications
This study has limitations due to a small sample size. Future research should use larger and diverse samples to explore self-disclosure in Saudi televised interviews comprehensively. The study focused solely on televised interviews; future research can examine self-disclosure across various media platforms.
Findings have practical implications for Saudi media and policymakers. Understanding self-disclosure in interviews can guide content creation, fostering open communication. Presenters consciously act as role models, influencing Saudi youth, emphasizing the role of positive self-presentation.
10. Conclusion
In conclusion, this study has shed light on the breadth and depth of self-disclosure in televised interviews of Saudi women and men. The findings highlight the diversity of topics discussed and the differences of the shared information. This study serves as a foundation for future research and provides insights that can inform media practices and communication strategies within the Saudi Arabian context.
In summary, this study adds to the body of knowledge on self-disclosure, providing valuable insights into the communication patterns of Saudi women and men. The observed gender differences in self-disclosure styles reflect the ongoing societal changes and efforts towards greater gender equality and empowerment in Saudi Arabia.
Figures
Figure 1
Number of self-disclosure instances for each topic
Figure 2
The average word count per instance of self-disclosure for each topic
Figure 3
The average response duration for women and men in relation to each topic
Figure 4
A sample of intonation variability (woman)
Figure 5
A sample of intonation variability (man)
Figure 6
Average loudness in decibels
Topics of self-disclosure and their definitions
| Topic | Definition |
|---|---|
| Attitude | Attitudes toward political matters, disasters and current events |
| Body | Emotional experiences regarding personal appearance and well-being |
| Money | Perspectives on financial matters, personal values and financial planning |
| Work | Events in the workplace, educational institution or careers |
| Feelings | Individual emotions, expressions of sadness and joy |
| Personal | Views on attraction and self-esteem |
| Interests | Personal hobbies and interests |
| Experiences | Customers' encounters with food, travel and shopping |
| Unclassified | Personal trivial matters, life events and encounters with the supernatural |
Source(s): The table is created by the author of this article
Classification of positive and negative emotion words
| Positive emotions | Negative emotions | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Happiness | Surprise | Anger | Disgust | Fear | Sadness |
| سعادة | دهشة | غضب | تقزز | خوف | حزن |
| فرح | ذهول | نقمة | اشمئزاز | ذعر | همّ |
| سرور | انبهار | سخط | قرف | رعب | غمّ |
| ابتهاج | مفاجأة | حنق | احتقار | فزع | تعاسة |
| انشراح | روعة | زعل | نفور | رهبة | بؤس |
Source(s): The table is created by the author of this article
Reflective verbs
| Think | Expect | Feel | Understand | Make sure | Know | Imagine | Remember |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| أعتقد | أتوقع | أحس | فهمت | أيقنت | عرفت/أعرف | أتخيل | أتذكر |
| أظن | أدركت | أتألم | أدركت | تأكدت | أعلم | أتصور | استحضر |
Source(s): The table is created by the author of this article
Free and bound pronouns in Arabic
| Person | Gender | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
| Free pronouns | 1st person | Male/female | أنا | – | نحن |
| 2nd person | Male | أنت | أنتما | أنتم | |
| Female | أنتِ | أنتن | |||
| 3rd person | Male | هو | هما | هم | |
| Female | هي | هنّ | |||
| Bound pronouns | 1st person | Male/female | ني/ـي- | – | ــنا |
| 2nd person | Male | ـكَ | ـكما | ـكم | |
| Female | ـكِ | ـكن | |||
| 3rd person | Male | ـه | ـهما | ـهم | |
| Female | ـها | ـهنّ |
Source(s): The table is created by the author of this article
Number of self-disclosure instances for each topic
| Topic | Women | Men |
|---|---|---|
| Attitude | 36 | 34 |
| Body | 4 | 2 |
| Money | 4 | 6 |
| Work | 11 | 15 |
| Feelings | 33 | 31 |
| Personal | 1 | 3 |
| Interests | 31 | 29 |
| Experiences | 28 | 26 |
| Unclassified | 23 | 25 |
Source(s): The table is created by the author of this article
A List of guests' names and links to episodes
Source(s): The Appendix is created by the author of this article
Table of analysis for the interviews
| HOW MUCH | HOW | What | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total Word Count | Response Duration | Intonation Variability | loudness | Speech Fluency | Emotion words | Reflective verbs | Pronouns | Social actors | Topics |
Source(s): The Appendix is created by the author of this article
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Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to King Khalid University for their crucial support during the research on self-disclosure patterns among Saudi women and men in televised interviews. Their assistance played a vital role in this endeavor, contributing to a better understanding of communication dynamics within Saudi culture and gender differences in traditional societies. The author thanks King Khalid University for your unwavering support in advancing academic research.
Corresponding author
About the author
Dr Raniah Al Mufarreh works as an advisor at King Khalid University Administration. I worked as a dean for the College of Arts and Sciences (Ahad Rufaidah, Saudi Arabia) from August 2021 to December 2022. I am an assistant professor of linguistics at King Khalid University. I joined the department of English in 2009 and was awarded a scholarship to get a PhD from University of Florida.