Abstract
Purpose
Unconventional machining processes, particularly ultrasonic vibration cutting (UVC), can overcome such technical bottlenecks. However, the precise mechanism through which UVC affects the in-service functional performance of advanced aerospace materials remains obscure. This limits their industrial application and requires a deeper understanding.
Design/methodology/approach
The surface integrity and in-service functional performance of advanced aerospace materials are important guarantees for safety and stability in the aerospace industry. For advanced aerospace materials, which are difficult-to-machine, conventional machining processes cannot meet the requirements of high in-service functional performance owing to rapid tool wear, low processing efficiency and high cutting forces and temperatures in the cutting area during machining.
Findings
To address this literature gap, this study is focused on the quantitative evaluation of the in-service functional performance (fatigue performance, wear resistance and corrosion resistance) of advanced aerospace materials. First, the characteristics and usage background of advanced aerospace materials are elaborated in detail. Second, the improved effect of UVC on in-service functional performance is summarized. We have also explored the unique advantages of UVC during the processing of advanced aerospace materials. Finally, in response to some of the limitations of UVC, future development directions are proposed, including improvements in ultrasound systems, upgrades in ultrasound processing objects and theoretical breakthroughs in in-service functional performance.
Originality/value
This study provides insights into the optimization of machining processes to improve the in-service functional performance of advanced aviation materials, particularly the use of UVC and its unique process advantages.
Keywords
Citation
Peng, Z., Han, A., Wang, C., Jin, H. and Zhang, X. (2024), "Ultrasonic vibration cutting of advanced aerospace materials: a critical review of in-service functional performance", Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing and Special Equipment, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMSE-12-2023-0016
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2024, Zhenlong Peng, Aowei Han, Chenlin Wang, Hongru Jin and Xiangyu Zhang
License
Published in Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing and Special Equipment. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
1. Introduction
In recent years, with the increasing demand for high-performance aerospace equipment and rapid developments in the manufacturing industry, advanced aerospace materials (such as superalloys, titanium alloys, ultrahigh-strength steels, carbon-fiber composites, metal matrix composites (MMC) and ceramic matrix composites (CMC)] with good physical properties have been widely used in aerospace applications (Alami et al., 2023; Soni et al., 2023; Sreenu et al., 2020). However, owing to the high strength, high hardness and low thermal conductivity of these advanced aerospace materials (difficult-to-machine materials), they suffer from problems such as the need for excessive cutting force, prevalence of high cutting temperature, severe tool wear and poor surface quality during traditional mechanical processing (turning, milling, grinding, drilling, etc.) (Arrazola et al., 2009; Babitsky et al., 2003; Babitsky et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2023b).
As is well known, poor surface integrity is not conducive to the in-service functional performance of components (including fatigue performance, corrosion resistance and wear resistance). As advanced aerospace materials are widely used in various key high-performance aerospace components that are related to the safety and stability of aircraft, it is particularly important to process these materials in the best possible manner (Morioka et al., 2001; Onawumi et al., 2018; Sharma et al., 2023). In popular commercial aircraft such as the Boeing 787 and Airbus 350, the main frame, fuselage and related longitudinal beams are primarily manufactured using carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP). Nowadays, in drones, the weight of the related structures can reach 60–90% (Borchardt, 2004). Superalloys are widely used in various components of aircraft engines and account for approximately 50% of their weight (Ulutan and Ozel, 2011). However, owing to the difficulty in processing these advanced aerospace materials, machining defects are inevitable at both the macro and microscales (Liu et al., 2020). Changes in the surface morphology, metallurgical state and mechanical properties strongly affect the in-service functional performance (fatigue performance, corrosion resistance and wear resistance) of aviation parts (Gavalda Diaz et al., 2019; Liao et al., 2019). Hence, it is critical to understand these aspects to ensure the safety and reliability of key aerospace components. For example, in the aerospace engine industry, safety standards are formulated based on performance measures such as fatigue resistance.
In recent years, with the increasing demand for high-performance aerospace equipment, both academia and industry have made tremendous efforts to elucidate defects in the processing of advanced aviation materials and their impact on the in-service functional performance of components and improvement measures have been explored. Generally, these defects are influenced to a certain extent by the machining conditions, including the machining parameters, tool selection and wear and the application of cooling methods (cutting fluid cooling, atomization cooling, gas-shielded cooling, etc.) (Jia et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2023a). A “mild” machining method (with reduced cutting speed and feed rate) can achieve better surface integrity and in-service functional performance, but this can lead to increased production costs and reduced machining efficiency. In addition, adopting advanced machining methods such as ultrasonic vibration cutting (UVC), laser-assisted machining and water-jet machining can improve the service performance of parts (He et al., 2023; Nath and Rahman, 2008; Siva Prasad and Chaitanya, 2023). UVC, as a high-precision machining process, is suitable for many difficult-to-machine materials such as superalloys, titanium alloys, ultrahigh-strength steels and composites. UVC generates high-frequency ultrasonic vibrations in cutting tools or workpieces to achieve intermittent machining, which has advantages such as reduced cutting force, reduced cutting heat, improved tool life, suppressed chatter, suppressed adhesion and improved machining surface quality (Liu et al., 2019; Namlu et al., 2022). In addition, UVC has unique advantages in the processing of advanced aerospace materials, such as suppressing burrs in metallic materials, reducing delamination in CFRPs and reducing damage in CMC and MMC (Ma et al., 2005; Xu et al., 2021). In current industrial production processes, enterprises generally have their own standards to quantify processing defects, optimize production costs and achieve maximum production efficiency. However, establishing causative performance standards across all processing conditions and operating ranges requires a significant allocation of resources (Thakur and Gangopadhyay, 2016).
Although existing reviews have mainly focused on the surface characterization of special materials processed using specific methods to improve the surface integrity of aerospace equipment, the relationship between the UVC process of advanced aerospace materials and their in-service functional performance has not been explored. Many researchers have studied the machining performance of different advanced aviation materials using UVC. However, few studies have comprehensively analyzed and summarized the characteristics and in-service functional performance of UVC from the perspective of advanced aerospace materials. Therefore, as shown in Figure 1, this study first provides a detailed introduction to the characteristics and usage background of advanced aerospace materials in Section 2 and summarizes the current research status of the impact of UVC on in-service functional performance in Section 3. In Section 4, the unique advantages of UVC during the machining of metallic and composite materials are highlighted to remove, reduce and eliminate certain processing defects to support their further application. The conclusions and possible future directions are presented in Sections 5 and 6, respectively.
2. Advanced aerospace materials
With the continuous upgradation of aviation equipment, the demand for improved core performance of key components is also constantly increasing, driving the iterative development of advanced materials (Figure 2). Owing to the developmental needs of the aerospace industry, the selection of advanced aviation materials has gradually shifted from aluminum alloys and steels to superalloys, titanium alloys, ultrahigh-strength steels and various composite materials. Currently, the main advanced aviation materials are classified as metallic and composite materials (Soni et al., 2023).
2.1 Metallic materials
2.1.1 Superalloys
Superalloys (i.e. high-temperature alloys) can be divided into iron, cobalt and nickel-based superalloys based on the composition of the matrix elements. With the progress in processing and material synthesis technologies, iron-based, cobalt-based, iron-nickel-based and iron-nickel chromium-based alloys are mostly being replaced by nickel-based high-temperature alloys (Choudhury and El-Baradie, 1998). High-temperature alloys are widely used in aircraft engines owing to their excellent high-temperature strength, thermal fatigue performance, corrosion resistance and creep resistance. They generally account for approximately 50% of the weight of aircraft engines (Rathi et al., 2023). Figures 3 and 4 illustrates the application of superalloys in turbine engines. With the increasing complexity of modern aircraft engines and increased operating temperatures, the development of high-temperature alloys has evolved from simple nickel–chromium matrices to multi-element and multiphase systems that meet stricter operating conditions (Shahwaz et al., 2022).
Inconel 718 is the most widely used Ni-based superalloy. Owing to its excellent heat resistance, good plasticity, resistance to high-temperature oxidation and corrosion and long-term structural stability, it is widely used in turbine engine blades and discs (Toubhans et al., 2020). FGH95, ME-16, RR1000 and Udimet 720LI have also been used in the aviation industry (Dong et al., 2021; Du et al., 2014; Soo et al., 2011). In addition, Nimonic C-263, Nimonic-75 and Nimonic-105 are primarily used in hot combustion chamber gas turbines (Ezugwu et al., 1999). IN-713LC cast high-temperature alloys are primarily used for rotor blades in gas turbines, aircraft turbines and rotor impellers (Kunz et al., 2010; Kunz et al., 2012).
Although nickel-based superalloys are widely used in the aviation industry owing to their excellent high-temperature performance and rapid work-hardening during processing, they exhibit extremely poor mechanical processing performance in actual production. High cutting force and high cutting temperature lead to severe tool wear and surface changes during the machining process that reduce the mechanical and corrosion resistance of the workpiece. Additionally, burrs are formed during the machining process (Jangali Satish et al., 2021; M'Saoubi et al., 2015).
2.1.2 Titanium alloys
Titanium alloys are suitable for aircraft engines and fuselage manufacturing because of their excellent mechanical properties and processability (Plate 1) (Nyamekye et al., 2023). The main advantages of titanium alloys are their low density (half of the density of nickel-based superalloys), good high-temperature performance, high specific strength, corrosion resistance, creep resistance and good compatibility (Pushp et al., 2022). In aircraft engines, titanium and its alloys are commonly used in low- and high-pressure compressors, components that withstand high centrifugal loads (such as discs and blades with reduced flow diameters) and components that operate under severe fatigue conditions (Williams and Starke, 2003). However, owing to the special properties of titanium alloys that are superior to conventional materials, challenges arise in production and processing. These problems include their high resistance to elastic-plastic deformation when torn by cutting teeth, severe work hardening and high cutting heat. Additionally, severe wear and tear can cause chips to easily adhere to the tool under high-temperature conditions, leading to the formation of chip lumps and difficulty in controlling chips (Che-Haron and Jawaid, 2005).
The most commonly used titanium alloys are α, β and α−β titanium alloys. Among α titanium alloys, near α titanium alloys have good creep resistance at high temperatures and are commonly used in high-temperature environments, with operating temperatures up to 400–520 °C(W. Jia et al., 2011). Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo is commonly used in turbine engine blades, discs and rotors and can also be applied in high-pressure compressors (Sefer et al., 2016).
β titanium alloys have high hardenability and stress corrosion resistance and can be heat treated to high strength α compared to titanium alloys. Additionally, β titanium and near β titanium alloys have higher tensile and fatigue strength and are commonly used in aircraft landing gear and aircraft springs (Boyer and Briggs, 2005). Research has shown that Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al (Ti-10-2-3) and Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-3Cr (Ti-5553) are superior to mature alloys such as Ti-6Al-4V (Ti-6-4) for use in landing gear and load-bearing fuselage applications (Filho et al., 2023; Wu et al., 2018). α−β alloys have higher strength and a good combination of properties to ensure stable operation at 315–400 °C. Ti-6-4 is the most commonly used alloy, accounting for 60% of the total titanium production and is primarily used in fasteners in compressor discs and static and rotating components in turbine engines (Chen et al., 2022).
2.1.3 Ultrahigh-strength steels
Since the launch of the first aircraft, steel has played an important role in the aviation industry, particularly in aircraft gears, bearings and fasteners. However, with developments in the aviation industry, the performance requirements of key aviation equipment are constantly increasing. The composition of steel has changed from carbon- and iron-based to complex alloys containing Fe and a large number of alloying elements. In recent years, advanced aerospace materials with good mechanical properties have been widely used, and the use of steel has rapidly decreased (Zhang et al., 2018). Figure 5 shows the steel materials used in the Boeing 7E7 aircraft series.
To meet current needs, ultrahigh-strength steels (UHSSs) have experienced rapid development. These steels are developed by adding various alloying elements to traditional alloy steels to enhance their mechanical properties. According to the composition of the alloy elements, UHSSs are divided into low-alloy ultrahigh-strength steels (LUHSSs), medium-alloy ultrahigh-strength steels (MUHSSs) and high-alloy ultrahigh-strength steels (HUHSSs) (Li et al., 2023b). The yield strength of UHSSs is generally greater than 1,380 MPa (Niu et al., 2021). Compared with traditional steel, UHSSs have significant advantages in terms of hardenability, tempering and softening ability, wear resistance and corrosion resistance and are commonly used in aviation engine bearings, landing gear and other key components (Li et al., 2023c). Plate 2 shows a photograph of the landing gear assembly for a Boeing 777 aircraft. Some common UHSSs in the aviation industry include 4130, 4140, 4340, 6150, 9260, 300M and D6ac (Li et al., 2023c).
However, hydrogen easily degrades UHSSs because hydrogen atoms at the crack tip weaken the interatomic bonds and promote crack propagation through slips and micropores. Under applied stress, the distribution of hydrogen is highly uneven, leading to local deformation and damage, which seriously affects the in-service functional performance (Herbsleb et al., 1981).
2.2 Composite materials
2.2.1 Carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRPs)
CFRPs have excellent mechanical properties such as high specific strength, high specific stiffness and fatigue resistance and were initially used in secondary structures such as ailerons, trim plates and rudders in aircraft (Deshmukh et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2023). With advancements in synthesis technology and usage, new fiber and matrix materials have significantly improved the performance of laminated boards (Fleischer et al., 2018; Geier et al., 2023). CFRPs have replaced traditional alloys (such as aluminum and titanium alloys) and are widely used in major aircraft structures, such as fuselages and wings (Angelone et al., 2021).
They are widely used in civil aircraft developed by organizations such as Boeing and Airbus. Figure 6 shows the percentage of the total structural weight attributed to composites and the use of composites in Airbus A380 aircraft. From Boeing the 737 to the Boeing 757, CFRPs are still mainly used for auxiliary structures. At present, composite materials account for over 25% of Airbus A380 and over 50% of Boeing 787 aircraft. Composite materials not only have enormous development potential in structural applications but are also widely used in aircraft main frames and the skin of fuselage/wings. Hence, CFRPs have strong development prospects in aircraft engines as well (Zhang et al., 2023c). One of the driving forces behind the application of CFRPs in aircraft is the strong focus of the aerospace industry on enhancing ecological efficiency by reducing fuel consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and costs (M'Saoubi et al., 2015).
However, owing to the nonuniformity and anisotropy of CFRPs, the application of conventional processing techniques can lead to poor material integrity as well as damage phenomena such as burrs and delamination (Geier et al., 2019). The milling process can cause burrs and delamination of uncut fiber yarns (Hou et al., 2021). Turning and drilling processes can lead to severe tool wear and poor surface integrity (Lin and Chen, 1996). Therefore, suppressing burrs and delamination, improving surface integrity and improving processing efficiency have become key to the widespread application of CFRPs.
2.2.2 Metal matrix composites (MMCs)
MMCs are composite materials based on metals and their alloys, artificially synthesized with metals, nonmetal reinforcing phases, or organic compounds. MMCs for advanced aerospace applications have a low thermal expansion coefficient, high strength, high stiffness, high creep resistance, a long fatigue life and good corrosion/oxidation resistance (Liu et al., 2014). Based on the type of matrix, MMCs are primarily divided into Al, Mg, Zn, Cu, Ti, Ni and intermetallic compound matrices (Dorri Moghadam et al., 2015). Most reinforcing materials are inorganic nonmetals such as ceramics, carbon, graphite and boron. The most commonly used MMCs in the aerospace industry are aluminum, magnesium and titanium-based composites. The applications of aluminum-based MMCs include aircraft fuselage, wings, fan guide blades and hydraulic system bypass valve boxes, whereas titanium-based MMCs are used in the relay pistons of gas turbine engines (Garg et al., 2019; Li et al., 2013).
By using ceramic particles such as SiC, Al2O3, C, B, B4C, AlN and SiO2 as reinforcing materials, the hardness, strength, corrosion resistance and wear resistance of MMCs can be improved (Kaczmar et al., 2000; Wang and Monetta, 2023). For example, using SiC can help achieve higher tensile strength and better hardness, density and wear resistance. The use of Al2O3 has a significant effect on improving compressive strength and wear resistance (Haque et al., 2022; Prater, 2014). In addition, fibers play a crucial role in MMCs (Watanabe et al., 2018).
MMCs have been used in various applications (including the aerospace, automotive and military industries) to meet the requirements of light weight, high strength, high stiffness and high performance in aviation equipment, and their proportion is constantly increasing.
2.2.3 Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
CMCs are composite materials composed of a ceramic serving as the matrix and various fibers. CMCs can be divided into oxide- and non-oxide-based composite materials based on their matrix composition. Oxide-based composite materials include glass, glass ceramics, oxides and composite oxides. Non-oxide-based composite materials are primarily composed of SiC, Si3N4 and MoS2 (Duan et al., 2021; Gavalda Diaz et al., 2019).
CMCs have high temperature resistance (working temperature up to 1,400°C), high hardness, low density and good corrosion resistance (Sommers et al., 2010). They are widely used in the high-temperature parts of aviation equipment, such as turbine blades, tail nozzle control fins, combustion chamber substrates and flame stabilizers (Krenkel and Berndt, 2005). Figure 7 shows the application of SiCf/SiC composites in the thermal structural components of aeroengines.
More than 20 years ago, general electric company (GE) began developing and researching ceramic-based composite materials for combustion chamber linings in civilian transport aircraft. The leading edge aviation propulsion (LEAP) aircraft engine developed by CFM has become the most widely used ceramic-based composite material product. Currently, the secondary sealing plate of F414 tail nozzles is composed of a CMC material.
CMCs exhibit excellent performance and are expected to replace high-temperature alloys in thermal components in aviation engines. By increasing the working temperature by 400–500 °C and reducing the structural weight by 50–70% on the basis of high-temperature alloys, CMCs have become a key thermal structural material in aircraft engines (Wang et al., 2021). However, owing to the complexity of CMCs, including their heterostructure, anisotropic thermal and mechanical behavior and the hardness of at least one component (such as fibers or matrix), processing becomes extremely challenging. In addition, the orthogonality, brittleness and heterogeneity of CMCs lead to different material removal mechanisms, resulting in unique surface defects (Gavalda Diaz et al., 2019).
3. In-service functional performance
3.1 Fatigue resistance
The fatigue resistance of advanced materials is closely related to their chemical composition, microstructure and mechanical properties. The integrity of machined surfaces affects their fatigue performance through the crack initiation location and propagation rate (Doremus et al., 2015). Several engineering practices have shown that fatigue fracture is the main mode of mechanical component fracture failure. Statistically, most major accidents caused by mechanical component fractures are related to fatigue fractures, and over 70% of fracture failures in aviation equipment are fatigue fractures (Suárez et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2018). Therefore, extensive research has been conducted to demonstrate the impact of surface integrity on the fatigue performance of components. Regarding the indicators of surface integrity, reducing surface processing defects, increasing surface residual compressive stress and moderately increasing the surface hardness can suppress crack initiation and prolong the fatigue life of specimens (Doremus et al., 2015; Han et al., 2022; Madariaga et al., 2022; Novovic et al., 2004).
Li et al. (2023a) noted that ultrasonic-assisted abrasive belt-ground (UAABG) optimized the surface texture, reduced surface roughness, increased residual compressive stress and microhardness and promoted the formation of surface deformation layers in Inconel 718. Compared with conventional abrasive belt-ground (CABG), UAABG improved fatigue performance by 14.3–74.8% (Figure 8).
Research has shown that when processing titanium-alloy fatigue specimens, high-speed ultrasonic vibration cutting (HUVC) can achieve higher surface microhardness, residual compressive stress and a thicker microstructure deformation layer than conventional cutting (CC). According to tensile fatigue tests, compared to CC, the fatigue life of specimens obtained by HUVC can be increased by 10.4 times. After fatigue fracture analysis, it is evident that the fatigue crack source in CC is on the surface of the specimen, whereas the fatigue crack source in HUVC is on the subsurface of the specimen (as shown in Figures 9 and 10) (Li et al., 2020).
Xue et al. (2021) found that rotated ultrasonic milling improved the surface quality of C/SiC composite materials, reduced defects such as fiber cracks and pits and suppressed the growth of fatigue fiber cracks in room-temperature environments. The accumulation of damage, first stress redistribution and fiber reinforcement stage were all delayed, and the damage rate decreased by approximately 31–80%. Figure 11 shows the fatigue test results. After the fatigue test, the residual tensile strength of the sample improved, reaching 95.8% of the original tensile strength.
Yin et al. (2023) conducted fatigue tests on nickel-based superalloys using ultrasonic peening milling (UPM) and conventional milling (CM) and found that UPM significantly extended the fatigue life of the specimens. Compared with CM, the average life of the UPM milled specimens increased by 16.12 times (Figure 12). After fatigue fracture analysis, it was observed that unlike CM, the fatigue crack source was present at a depth of 640 μm from the machined surface, and the stress concentration and surface defects reduced after processing.
3.2 Wear resistance
Wear is an extremely important failure process. In industrial production, approximately 23% of the energy is wasted on overcoming friction (Perry and Tysoe, 2005). Statistically, by improving new technologies to reduce wear and friction in various industrial processes, economic benefits equivalent to 1.4% of the global gross domestic product (GDP) can be achieved (Yi et al., 2021). Therefore, understanding and improving the wear resistance of key components is particularly important to enhance safety, energy savings and economic benefits in the aviation industry. During the machining process, the microstructure of the material undergoes certain changes and the contact surface of the metal undergoes plastic deformation. In addition, the surface integrity of the material affects its wear resistance Peng et al. (2023a). In recent years, researchers and engineering technicians have started studying the wear mechanism and material characteristics, continuously optimizing and improving processing methods and parameters to enhance the wear resistance of advanced aerospace materials.
Peng et al. (2023b) studied the effect of HUVC conditions on the surface integrity and wear behavior of titanium alloys. Compared with CC, HUVC achieved a thicker plastic deformation layer, higher surface residual compressive stress and microhardness and lower surface roughness. In addition, experiments found that HUVC reduced the friction coefficient and wear volume loss by 20.98–25.59%, effectively improving the wear resistance of titanium alloys (Figure 13).
When processing superalloys, compared with conventional side milling (CSM), longitudinal-torsional ultrasonic vibration side milling (LTUVSM) has been found to result in better surface quality, a maximum reduction of 23.4% in surface roughness and higher microhardness and residual compressive stress (Chang et al., 2024). In addition, after LTUVSM, the superalloy exhibited enhanced dislocation accumulation and grain boundary fracture, resulting in complete grain refinement and a 7.3% decrease in the average grain diameter. The refinement of the internal grains improved the mechanical properties of the material surface, thereby enhancing its wear resistance. Figure 14 shows the sliding-wear friction coefficient waveform and its variation.
To improve the service and processing performance of parts, Chang et al. (2023) systematically studied the surface quality and wear resistance of a GH4169 superalloy under CSM and LTUVSM conditions. LTUVSM significantly reduced tool wear and improved surface machining quality. Meanwhile, the regular ultrasonic vibration texture suppressed the friction and growth of the contact nodes in the contact area, reducing the degree of surface wear. The maximum reductions in the friction coefficient and extent of wear were 18.2 and 15.8%, respectively (Figure 15).
Wang et al. (2024) conducted multidimensional ultrasonic vibration-assisted machining (MDUVM) of titanium alloys. They noted that, compared to conventional machining (CM), MDUVM introduced more impact energy, achieving deep grain refinement and a 10.9% increase in surface hardness. After friction and wear testing, the average friction force on the surface of the MDUVM specimens decreased by 15.6%, and the average friction coefficient decreased by 23.4%. Smooth wear contours and reduced oxidation of wear fragments helped reduce the wear depth. Figure 16 shows the profile of the wear zone on the MDUVM and CM surfaces. In addition, after MDUVM processing, the uniformly distributed microstructure on the surface of the titanium alloy was conducive to the uniform distribution of surface pressure, improving the surface hardness and reducing material peeling.
3.3 Corrosion resistance
Corrosion is a phenomenon in which the properties of a metal change through chemical or electrochemical interactions with its environment, resulting in damage or deterioration. During the machining process, local changes may occur on the material surface that can adversely affect its functional use (Mishurova et al., 2021). Surface defects caused by machining can promote corrosion. Therefore, poor surface integrity combined with corrosive environments can lead to the premature failure of components (Okorokov et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2023a). Furthermore, in certain situations (such as in the aviation industry), the failure of critical components may lead to catastrophic consequences. Therefore, exploring the relationship between surface integrity and corrosion resistance of workpieces is particularly important for improving the performance, safety and reliability of aviation equipment.
In recent years, corrosion-resistant coatings on the surfaces of metallic materials have been widely used in practical industrial environments. Although this is a practical solution, it cannot be applied to professional applications, and its high cost makes it unaffordable in certain situations. In such cases, the surfaces of metallic materials are directly exposed to corrosive environments, exacerbating their functional failure (Turnbull et al., 2011). Therefore, ensuring high corrosion resistance of metallic materials is particularly important, and it is necessary to improve the processing methods and parameters to enhance the corrosion resistance of the workpiece.
Rui et al. (2015) studied the influence of surface roughness on the corrosion resistance of titanium alloy and inferred that an increase in surface roughness not only increased the activity of dislocations, but also made the material more susceptible to corrosion. However, when the surface roughness was high, the micro-surface area involved in the corrosion reaction increased, leading to accelerated corrosion. Moreover, as the surface roughness increased, the probability of forming microcracks was greater, and the potential difference between peaks and valleys increased, which amplified the possibility of pitting corrosion. Okorokov et al. (2018) investigated the effect of residual stress on the corrosion resistance of machined surfaces and found that residual compressive stress helped to close surface defects and increased electron escape work, thereby improving the corrosion resistance, whereas residual tensile stress had the opposite effect.
Sreejith et al. (2023) investigated the effect of machining operations on the corrosion performance of tungsten heavy alloys (Figure 17). They studied the effects of three different machining operations (wire electrical discharge machining (EDM), rough turning and finish turning) on the corrosion performance. It was found that the corrosion current on the rough turning surface was the highest, followed by wire EDM; and the finish-turning surface. A higher corrosion current led to a higher corrosion rate. Compared to finish-turning surfaces, more machining defects and higher surface roughness increased the corrosion rate of the surface after rough turning and wire EDM.
Wang and Niu (2023) investigated the effects of ultrasonic vibration extrusion cutting (UVEC) on the corrosion performance of materials at different amplitudes. As the amplitude increased, the equivalent strain, equivalent strain rate and degree of grain refinement of the material gradually increased. Figure 18 shows the Tafel curves of the original matrix and strip in a 5% NaCl solution. The electrochemical corrosion test showed that with an increase in ultrasonic amplitude, the electrochemical parameters were improved. Additionally, the corrosion resistance of the samples prepared by UVEC was significantly improved compared to the original matrix.
4. Unique advantages of UVC during machining of advanced aerospace materials
4.1 Suppressing burrs when machining metallic materials
Advanced metallic materials (superalloys, titanium alloys and ultrahigh-strength steels) are widely used in the aviation industry because of their superior properties compared to conventional materials. However, their unique characteristics also seriously affect their processing performance. With advancements in technology, the precision requirements for aviation microparts are becoming increasingly high. Advanced metallic materials may encounter problems that affect the surface accuracy and processing efficiency during the machining process, such as surface burrs and residual tensile stress (Gao et al., 2021). In industry, measures such as changing cutting tools, selecting appropriate machining parameters and using appropriate cooling methods are commonly used to improve machining quality and efficiency. However, their implementation is difficult (Lin and Shyu, 2000; Ma et al., 2005; Ni et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2023d). UVC, as a special machining technology, has significant advantages in the processing of advanced metallic materials that are difficult to machine. Multiple studies have shown that UVC can significantly reduce the cutting force and cutting temperature, extend the tool life, remove or reduce machining defects and improve the machining surface quality (Chang and Bone, 2005; Fang et al., 2021; Takeyama and Kato, 1991).
Fang et al. (2021) found that the ratio of feed rate per tooth to the cutting edge radius is a key factor affecting burr thickness in ultrasonic vibration-assisted micro-milling (UVAMM) of nickel-based superalloys. Within the range of size effects, compared with traditional micro-milling (TMM), UVAMM suppressed burrs and chip deposits, thereby significantly improving the machining quality and milling process (as shown in Figure 19).
Gao et al. (2021)investigated the effect of longitudinal torsional ultrasound-assisted vibration drilling (LTUAVD) on microhole drilling. They found that reducing the spindle speed and amplitude reduced the height of the burrs when drilling titanium alloys. In addition, compared to conventional microdrilling (CD), LTUAVD reduced the burr height by 33.4–44.9%. Figure 20 shows the burr morphologies of the microholes in CD and LTUAVD.
Research has shown that during ultrasonic longitudinal-torsional assisted milling (ULTAM) of titanium alloys, the longitudinal amplitude produces surface ironing and trimming effects, whereas the torsional amplitude transforms continuous cutting into intermittent cutting. During the process of contact and separation between the tool and workpiece, the ultrasonic longitudinal and torsional amplitudes act simultaneously, reducing the formation of scratches and burrs and thereby improving the surface quality after machining (Figure 21). Simultaneously, the characteristics of intermittent cutting in ULTAM improve the machining environment, effectively reduce the cutting force and tool wear and thereby suppress the generation of scratches and burrs (Chen et al., 2020).
Ma et al. (2005)compared the effects of three cutting methods (ordinary cutting, conventional vibration cutting (CVC) and elliptical vibration cutting (EVC)) on the formation of burrs (Figure 22). The height of the burrs generated in CVC and EVC was reduced compared to ordinary cutting. As the ratio of the maximum vibration speed to the cutting speed increased, the height of the burrs decreased. In addition, compared to CVC, EVC had the lowest average thrust stress and average bending stress in the deformation zone of the workpiece edge when burrs were formed, which effectively suppressed burrs.
4.2 Reducing damage when machining composites
With the increasing usage of composite materials in aviation equipment manufacturing, it is crucial to consider and study their behavior and failure during aircraft structural damage. Damage to advanced composite materials is likely to occur during manufacturing and processing (Yang et al., 2023b). As shown in Figure 23, the typical types of damage include drilling-induced damage, impact damage, delamination and cracking. Owing to the heterogeneity, anisotropy and hardness of composite materials, the common damage morphologies caused by drilling include delamination, spalling, fuzzing, fiber frying and chipping (Feito et al., 2014). Surface failures can seriously threaten the safety and stability of aviation equipment, which has prompted researchers to conduct studies continuously to eliminate or mitigate them. For example, when using traditional machining tools to process CFRPs, typical issues related to precision machining and surface integrity are often encountered. The occurrence of various types of faults, such as delamination, spalling, fuzzing and fiber-frying chipping, ultimately leads to the abandonment of numerous workpieces (Geng et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2022). According to previous reports, the scrap rate of aircraft components due to layering-related failures in the aircraft industry is as high as approximately 60%. Therefore, adopting reasonable processing methods and techniques to improve processing quality has become the key to the widespread application of composite materials.
Geng et al. (2020) found that the main factors that inhibited delamination in rotating ultrasonic elliptical machining (RUEM) of CFRPs were as follows: (1) the thrust force was significantly reduced, (2) the tearing shear effect caused by chip removal was significantly reduced, effectively alleviating delamination propagation and (3) the sharpening of the cutting edge and the increase in cutting speed accelerated the occurrence of fiber fracture during the drilling process. As shown in Figures 24 and 25, compared with conventional drilling effects, the delamination coefficient of the 1/2 layer in RUEM was reduced by 5.4–19.3%. The layering coefficient of the 2/3 layer decreased by 0.7–8.4%, achieving lower layering damage and higher processing efficiency.
Liu et al. (2021) examined longitudinal torsion-coupled-rotation ultrasonic-assisted drilling (LTC-RUAD) of CFRPs. Compared with conventional drilling (CD), when the spindle feed rate Sf was 0.01 mm/rev, the spindle speed Sr was 4,000 rpm, the minimum burr coefficient, tear coefficient and delamination coefficient were 0.021, 0.011 and 0.054, respectively. The damage factors decreased by 62.56, 76.6 and 69.67%, respectively. The comprehensive coefficient decreased by approximately 66.77%. Figures 26 and 27 show the damage defects using CD and LTC-RUAD, respectively.
Research has shown that longitudinal-torsional ultrasonic vibration milling (LTUVM) can significantly improve the processing quality of aramid fiber-reinforced plastics and reduce the length of burrs and subsurface damage. Compared with CM, after LTUVM, the burr length of aramid fiber-reinforced plastic was observed to reduce by 23–38%, fiber compression deformation was reduced and crack propagation was suppressed (Figure 28) (Xu et al., 2021).
To alleviate the limitations of using C/SiC composites in industrial applications, Xie et al. (2022) improved the machining quality of C/SiC composites using longitudinal ultrasonic vibration-assisted side milling (LUVASM). Figure 29 shows the fiber debonding depth under various amplitudes. The shear stress of carbon fiber increased with the friction reflection angle or matrix dynamic modulus due to longitudinal ultrasonic vibration, further inhibiting the debonding damage of carbon fiber. In addition, after LUVASM, the surface roughness of the C/SiC composite materials was reduced by up to 40%, effectively suppressing debonding damage to the carbon fibers and significantly reducing the number of voids on the processed surface.
5. Conclusions
In this review, we elaborated on the characteristics and applications of advanced aerospace materials, highlighted current research on the effect of UVC on the in-service functional performance of advanced aerospace materials and described developments related to its unique processing advantages. The main findings are as follows.
(1) Advanced metal aerospace materials are widely used owing to their unique mechanical properties. For example, nickel-based superalloys have good heat resistance, plasticity, high-temperature oxidation resistance and corrosion resistance and are widely used in turbine blades and discs of turbine engines. The primary advantages of titanium alloys are their low density, good high-temperature performance, high specific strength, high corrosion resistance, creep resistance and good compatibility. They are typically used in low- and high-pressure compressors. Ultrahigh-strength steels have significant advantages in terms of hardenability, tempering and softening ability, wear resistance and corrosion resistance and are commonly used in aviation engine bearings, landing gear and other key components.
(2) Composite materials exhibit characteristics such as high specific strength, high specific stiffness and fatigue resistance. Their application and development are important for significantly improving the efficiency, comfort and environmental friendliness of aircraft structures. With the advancement of synthesis technology and usage experience, the use of composite materials such as CFRPs, MMCs and CMCs has been increasing annually. CFRPs are widely used in the skin of aircraft main frames and fuselage/wings. MMCs are commonly used in the relay pistons of gas turbine engines, aircraft fuselage, wings and fan guide blades. CMCs are widely used in high-temperature parts of aviation equipment and are expected to replace high-temperature alloys in thermal components in aviation engines in the future.
(3) Improving the in-service functional performance (fatigue resistance, wear resistance and corrosion resistance) of aircraft components is crucial to ensuring their stability and safety. Numerous studies have demonstrated that UVC can effectively improve the service performance of parts.
UVC can significantly increase the microhardness and residual compressive stress on the surface of the workpiece, promote the formation of subsurface deformation layers and help improve the fatigue life. Through fatigue testing, the fatigue life has been found to be significantly improved and fatigue cracks are distributed on the subsurface of the specimen. When processing composite materials, UVC can significantly improve the surface quality, reduce defects such as fiber cracks and pits and suppress the growth of fatigue fiber cracks.
In terms of wear resistance, UVC can improve the surface microhardness, residual compressive stress and surface deformation layer of the workpiece. At the same time, it helps to refine the internal grains, improve the surface mechanical properties and enhance wear resistance. In addition, after ultrasonic processing, the regular ultrasonic vibration texture on the surface also helps to improve wear resistance.
Excellent machining surface quality contributes to improved corrosion resistance. Corrosion tests have shown that UVC can improve the corrosion resistance of workpieces, which increases with increasing amplitude.
(4) Ultrasonic vibration machining can effectively remove and suppress defects such as burrs, scratches and chip deposits in metallic materials after processing. When processing composite materials, various types of damage such as delamination, spalling, fuzzing, fiber frying and chipping often occur. UVC effectively improves the processing quality of composite materials by removing or reducing the occurrence of processing defects such as delamination, palling, fuzzing, fiber frying and burrs.
6. Possible future directions
(1) Advanced UVC devices
With recent breakthroughs in UVC theory and devices, the application of UVC to advanced aerospace materials has become increasingly widespread. However, owing to the difficulties in material processing and the limitations of ultrasonic devices, problems still arise in controlling the ultrasonic system during processing. For example, the conditions for improving the electromechanical conversion efficiency of ultrasonic systems and the methods for stabilizing the working frequency near the resonant frequency during machining remain unresolved. In the future, transducers with high electromechanical conversion efficiency and high-power output and generators with self-tracking resonant frequencies should be incorporated into ultrasonic systems to improve processing quality and efficiency.
(2) Complex UVC objects
Ultrasonic machining is widely used for machining advanced aerospace materials. With the development of the materials industry, UVC has broad application prospects for advanced materials that are extremely difficult-to-machine (such as powder superalloys, intermetallic compounds and nickel-based single-crystal alloys).
(3) UVC theory
Breakthroughs have been achieved regarding the cutting method and cutting characteristic theory of ultrasonic machining. However, the effects of ultrasonic machining on the surface integrity of the workpiece and the mechanism of crystal phase transformation of the subsurface layer have not been fully elucidated. Therefore, in the future, researchers should continue to explore the strengthening mechanism of ultrasonic machining on the serviceability of components so that production practices can be guided to achieve excellent in-service functional performance.
Figures
References
Alami, A.H., Ghani Olabi, A., Alashkar, A., Alasad, S., Aljaghoub, H., Rezk, H. and Abdelkareem, M.A. (2023), “Additive manufacturing in the aerospace and automotive industries: recent trends and role in achieving sustainable development goals”, Ain Shams Engineering Journal, Vol. 14 No. 11, 102516, doi: 10.1016/j.asej.2023.102516.
Angelone, R., Caggiano, A., Nele, L. and Teti, R. (2021), “Optimal cutting parameters and tool geometry in drilling of CFRP/CFRP stack laminates for aeronautical applications”, Procedia CIRP, Vol. 99, pp. 398-403, doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2021.03.056.
Arrazola, P.J., Garay, A., Iriarte, L.M., Armendia, M., Marya, S. and Le Maître, F. (2009), “Machinability of titanium alloys (Ti6Al4V and Ti555.3)”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 209 No. 5, pp. 2223-2230, doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2008.06.020.
Babitsky, V.I., Kalashnikov, A.N., Meadows, A. and Wijesundara, A.A.H.P. (2003), “Ultrasonically assisted turning of aviation materials”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 132 No. 1, pp. 157-167, doi: 10.1016/S0924-0136(02)00844-0.
Babitsky, V.I., Mitrofanov, A.V. and Silberschmidt, V.V. (2004), “Ultrasonically assisted turning of aviation materials: simulations and experimental study”, Ultrasonics, Vol. 42 No. 1, pp. 81-86, doi: 10.1016/j.ultras.2004.02.001.
Borchardt, J.K. (2004), “Unmanned aerial vehicles spur composites use”, Reinforced Plastics, Vol. 48 No. 4, pp. 28-31, doi: 10.1016/S0034-3617(04)00194-8.
Boyer, R.R. and Briggs, R.D. (2005), “The use of β titanium alloys in the aerospace industry”, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Vol. 14 No. 6, pp. 681-685, doi: 10.1361/105994905x75448.
Chang, S.S.F. and Bone, G.M. (2005), “Burr size reduction in drilling by ultrasonic assistance”, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 442-450, doi: 10.1016/j.rcim.2004.11.005.
Chang, B., Yi, Z., Zhang, F., Duan, L. and Duan, J.-a. (2023), “A comprehensive research on wear resistance of GH4169 superalloy in longitudinal-torsional ultrasonic vibration side milling with tool wear and surface quality”, Chinese Journal of Aeronautics. doi: 10.1016/j.cja.2023.07.009.
Chang, B., Yi, Z., Duan, L., Zhang, F. and Duan, J.-A. (2024), “Surface wear resistance and microstructure characteristic in longitudinal–torsional ultrasonic vibration side milling of GH4169 superalloy”, Applied Surface Science, Vol. 649, 159075, doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2023.159075.
Che-Haron, C.H. and Jawaid, A. (2005), “The effect of machining on surface integrity of titanium alloy Ti–6% Al–4% V”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 166 No. 2, pp. 188-192, doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2004.08.012.
Chen, P., Tong, J., Zhao, J., Zhang, Z. and Zhao, B. (2020), “A study of the surface microstructure and tool wear of titanium alloys after ultrasonic longitudinal-torsional milling”, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 53, pp. 1-11, doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.01.040.
Chen, G., Caudill, J., Chen, S. and Jawahir, I.S. (2022), “Machining-induced surface integrity in titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V: an investigation of cutting edge radius and cooling/lubricating strategies”, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 74, pp. 353-364, doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.12.016.
Choudhury, I.A. and El-Baradie, M.A. (1998), “Machinability of nickel-base super alloys: a general review”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 77 No. 1, pp. 278-284, doi: 10.1016/S0924-0136(97)00429-9.
Deshmukh, S.P., Shrivastava, R. and Thakar, C.M. (2022), “Machining of composite materials through advance machining process”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 52, pp. 1078-1081, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2021.10.495.
Dong, C., Yang, S. and Peng, Z. (2021), “Effect of shot peening on notched fatigue performance of powder metallurgy Udimet 720Li superalloy”, Intermetallics, Vol. 135, 107226, doi: 10.1016/j.intermet.2021.107226.
Doremus, L., Cormier, J., Villechaise, P., Henaff, G., Nadot, Y. and Pierret, S. (2015), “Influence of residual stresses on the fatigue crack growth from surface anomalies in a nickel-based superalloy”, Materials Science and Engineering: A, Vol. 644, pp. 234-246, doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2015.07.077.
Dorri Moghadam, A., Omrani, E., Menezes, P.L. and Rohatgi, P.K. (2015), “Mechanical and tribological properties of self-lubricating metal matrix nanocomposites reinforced by carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene – a review”, Composites Part B: Engineering, Vol. 77, pp. 402-420, doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2015.03.014.
Du, J., Liu, Z. and Lv, S. (2014), “Deformation-phase transformation coupling mechanism of white layer formation in high speed machining of FGH95 Ni-based superalloy”, Applied Surface Science, Vol. 292, pp. 197-203, doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.11.111.
Duan, J., Zhang, M., Chen, P., Li, Z., Pang, L., Xiao, P. and Li, Y. (2021), “Tribological behavior and applications of carbon fiber reinforced ceramic composites as high-performance frictional materials”, Ceramics International, Vol. 47 No. 14, pp. 19271-19281, doi: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.02.187.
Ezugwu, E.O., Wang, Z.M. and Machado, A.R. (1999), “The machinability of nickel-based alloys: a review”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 86 No. 1, pp. 1-16, doi: 10.1016/S0924-0136(98)00314-8.
Fang, B., Yuan, Z., Li, D. and Gao, L. (2021), “Effect of ultrasonic vibration on finished quality in ultrasonic vibration assisted micromilling of Inconel718”, Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, Vol. 34 No. 6, pp. 209-219, doi: 10.1016/j.cja.2020.09.021.
Feito, N., Díaz-Alvarez, J., Díaz-Alvarez, A., Cantero, J.L. and Miguélez, M.H. (2014), “Experimental analysis of the influence of drill point angle and wear on the drilling of woven CFRPs”, Materials, Vol. 7 No. 6, pp. 4258-4271, doi: 10.3390/ma7064258.
Filho, T.K., He, Q., Paiva, J.M. and Veldhuis, S.C. (2023), “An analysis of different cutting strategies to improve tool life when machining Ti-5Al-5V-5Mo-3Cr alloy”, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 102, pp. 50-66, doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.07.030.
Fleischer, J., Teti, R., Lanza, G., Mativenga, P., Möhring, H.-C. and Caggiano, A. (2018), “Composite materials parts manufacturing”, CIRP Annals, Vol. 67 No. 2, pp. 603-626, doi: 10.1016/j.cirp.2018.05.005.
Gao, G., Xia, Z., Yuan, Z., Xiang, D. and Zhao, B. (2021), “Influence of longitudinal-torsional ultrasonic-assisted vibration on micro-hole drilling Ti-6Al-4V”, Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, Vol. 34 No. 9, pp. 247-260, doi: 10.1016/j.cja.2020.06.012.
Garg, P., Jamwal, A., Kumar, D., Sadasivuni, K.K., Hussain, C.M. and Gupta, P. (2019), “Advance research progresses in aluminium matrix composites: manufacturing and applications”, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, Vol. 8 No. 5, pp. 4924-4939, doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
Gavalda Diaz, O., Garcia Luna, G., Liao, Z. and Axinte, D. (2019), “The new challenges of machining Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs): review of surface integrity”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 139, pp. 24-36, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2019.01.003.
Geier, N., Davim, J.P. and Szalay, T. (2019), “Advanced cutting tools and technologies for drilling carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites: a review”, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol. 125, 105552, doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.105552.
Geier, N., Xu, J., Poór, D.I., Dege, J.H. and Davim, J.P. (2023), “A review on advanced cutting tools and technologies for edge trimming of carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites”, Composites Part B: Engineering, Vol. 266, 111037, doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2023.111037.
Geng, D., Liu, Y., Shao, Z., Zhang, M., Jiang, X. and Zhang, D. (2020), “Delamination formation and suppression during rotary ultrasonic elliptical machining of CFRP”, Composites Part B: Engineering, Vol. 183, 107698, doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107698.
Han, X., Liao, Z., Luna, G.G., Li, H.N. and Axinte, D. (2022), “Towards the understanding the effect of surface integrity on the fatigue performance of silicon carbide particle reinforced aluminium matrix composites”, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 73, pp. 518-530, doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.11.029.
Haque, S., Abdur Rahman, M., Rajjak Shaikh, R., Sirajudeen, N., Bak Kamaludeen, M. and Sahu, O. (2022), “Effect of powder metallurgy process parameters on tribology and micro hardness of Al6063- nano Al2O3 MMCs”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 68, pp. 1030-1037, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.08.255.
He, Y., Xiao, G., Liu, Z., Ni, Y. and Liu, S. (2023), “Subsurface damage in laser-assisted machining titanium alloys”, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, Vol. 258, 108576, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2023.108576.
Herbsleb, G., Poepperling, R.K. and Schwenk, W. (1981), “Occurrence and prevention of hydrogen induced stepwise cracking and stress-corrosion cracking of low-alloy pipeline steels”, Corrosion, Vol. 37 No. 5, pp. 247-256, doi: 10.5006/1.3621679.
Hou, Y., Yao, P., Zhang, H., Liu, X., Liu, H., Huang, C. and Zhang, Z. (2021), “Chatter stability and surface quality in milling of unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced polymer”, Composite Structures, Vol. 271, 114131, doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2021.114131.
Jangali Satish, G., Gaitonde, V.N. and Kulkarni, V.N. (2021), “Traditional and non-traditional machining of nickel-based superalloys: a brief review”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 44, pp. 1448-1454, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.632.
Jia, P., Rong, Y. and Huang, Y. (2019), “Condition monitoring of the feed drive system of a machine tool based on long-term operational modal analysis”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 146, 103454, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2019.103454.
Jia, W., Zeng, W., Liu, J., Zhou, Y. and Wang, Q. (2011), “On the influence of processing parameters on microstructural evolution of a near alpha titanium alloy”, Materials Science and Engineering: A, Vol. 530, pp. 135-143, doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2011.09.064.
Kaczmar, J.W., Pietrzak, K. and Włosiński, W. (2000), “The production and application of metal matrix composite materials”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 106 No. 1, pp. 58-67, doi: 10.1016/S0924-0136(00)00639-7.
Krenkel, W. and Berndt, F. (2005), “C/C–SiC composites for space applications and advanced friction systems”, Materials Science and Engineering: A, Vol. 412 No. 1, pp. 177-181, doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2005.08.204.
Kunz, L., Lukáš, P. and Konečná, R. (2010), “High-cycle fatigue of Ni-base superalloy Inconel 713LC”, International Journal of Fatigue, Vol. 32 No. 6, pp. 908-913, doi: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2009.02.042.
Kunz, L., Lukáš, P., Konečná, R. and Fintová, S. (2012), “Casting defects and high temperature fatigue life of IN 713LC superalloy”, International Journal of Fatigue, Vol. 41, pp. 47-51, doi: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2011.12.002.
Li, S., Sun, B., Imai, H., Mimoto, T. and Kondoh, K. (2013), “Powder metallurgy titanium metal matrix composites reinforced with carbon nanotubes and graphite”, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol. 48, pp. 57-66, doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2012.12.005.
Li, X., Yang, S., Lu, Z., Zhang, D., Zhang, X. and Jiang, X. (2020), “Influence of ultrasonic peening cutting on surface integrity and fatigue behavior of Ti-6Al-4V specimens”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 275, 116386, doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.116386.
Li, S., Xiao, G., Zhuo, X., Chen, B., Zhao, Z. and Huang, Y. (2023a), “Fatigue performance and failure mechanism of ultrasonic-assisted abrasive-belt-ground Inconel 718”, International Journal of Fatigue, Vol. 168, 107406, doi: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2022.107406.
Li, K., Yang, T., Gong, N., Wu, J., Wu, X., Zhang, D.Z. and Murr, L.E. (2023b), “Additive manufacturing of ultra-high strength steels: a review”, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 965, 171390, doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2023.171390.
Li, J., Zhan, D., Jiang, Z., Zhang, H., Yang, Y. and Zhang, Y. (2023c), “Progress on improving strength-toughness of ultra-high strength martensitic steels for aerospace applications: a review”, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, Vol. 23, pp. 172-190, doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.12.177.
Liao, Z., Abdelhafeez, A., Li, H., Yang, Y., Diaz, O.G. and Axinte, D. (2019), “State-of-the-art of surface integrity in machining of metal matrix composites”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 143, pp. 63-91, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2019.05.006.
Lin, S.C. and Chen, I.K. (1996), “Drilling carbon fiber-reinforced composite material at high speed”, Wear, Vol. 194 No. 1, pp. 156-162, doi: 10.1016/0043-1648(95)06831-7.
Lin, T.R. and Shyu, R.F. (2000), “Improvement of tool life and exit burr using variable feeds when drilling stainless steel with coated drills”, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 16 No. 5, pp. 308-313, doi: 10.1007/s001700050162.
Liu, J., Li, J. and Xu, C. (2014), “Interaction of the cutting tools and the ceramic-reinforced metal matrix composites during micro-machining: a review”, CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 55-70, doi: 10.1016/j.cirpj.2014.01.003.
Liu, X., Wu, D., Zhang, J., Hu, X. and Cui, P. (2019), “Analysis of surface texturing in radial ultrasonic vibration-assisted turning”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 267, pp. 186-195, doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.12.021.
Liu, Q., Liao, Z. and Axinte, D. (2020), “Temperature effect on the material removal mechanism of soft-brittle crystals at nano/micron scale”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 159, 103620, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2020.103620.
Liu, Y., Li, Q., Qi, Z. and Chen, W. (2021), “Defect suppression mechanism and experimental study on longitudinal torsional coupled rotary ultrasonic assisted drilling of CFRPs”, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 70, pp. 177-192, doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.08.042.
M'Saoubi, R., Axinte, D., Soo, S.L., Nobel, C., Attia, H., Kappmeyer, G., Engin, S. and Sim, W.-M. (2015), “High performance cutting of advanced aerospace alloys and composite materials”, CIRP Annals, Vol. 64 No. 2, pp. 557-580, doi: 10.1016/j.cirp.2015.05.002.
Ma, C., Shamoto, E., Moriwaki, T., Zhang, Y. and Wang, L. (2005), “Suppression of burrs in turning with ultrasonic elliptical vibration cutting”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 45 No. 11, pp. 1295-1300, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2005.01.011.
Madariaga, A., Garay, A., Esnaola, J.A., Arrazola, P.J. and Linaza, A. (2022), “Effect of surface integrity generated by machining on isothermal low cycle fatigue performance of Inconel 718”, Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 137, 106422, doi: 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106422.
Mishurova, T., Artzt, K., Rehmer, B., Haubrich, J., Ávila, L., Schoenstein, F., Serrano-Munoz, I., Requena, G. and Bruno, G. (2021), “Separation of the impact of residual stress and microstructure on the fatigue performance of LPBF Ti-6Al-4V at elevated temperature”, International Journal of Fatigue, Vol. 148, 106239, doi: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2021.106239.
Morioka, K., Tomita, Y. and Takigawa, K. (2001), “High-temperature fracture properties of CFRP composite for aerospace applications”, Materials Science and Engineering: A, Vols 319-321, pp. 675-678, doi: 10.1016/S0921-5093(01)01000-0.
Namlu, R.H., Yılmaz, O.D., Lotfisadigh, B. and Kılıç, S.E. (2022), “An experimental study on surface quality of Al6061-T6 in ultrasonic vibration-assisted milling with minimum quantity lubrication”, Procedia CIRP, Vol. 108, pp. 311-316, doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2022.04.071.
Nath, C. and Rahman, M. (2008), “Effect of machining parameters in ultrasonic vibration cutting”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 48 No. 9, pp. 965-974, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2008.01.013.
Ni, C., Zhu, L. and Yang, Z. (2019), “Comparative investigation of tool wear mechanism and corresponding machined surface characterization in feed-direction ultrasonic vibration assisted milling of Ti–6Al–4V from dynamic view”, Wear, Vols 436-437, 203006, doi: 10.1016/j.wear.2019.203006.
Niu, M.C., Yin, L.C., Yang, K., Luan, J.H., Wang, W. and Jiao, Z.B. (2021), “Synergistic alloying effects on nanoscale precipitation and mechanical properties of ultrahigh-strength steels strengthened by Ni3Ti, Mo-enriched, and Cr-rich co-precipitates”, Acta Materialia, Vol. 209, 116788, doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2021.116788.
Novovic, D., Dewes, R.C., Aspinwall, D.K., Voice, W. and Bowen, P. (2004), “The effect of machined topography and integrity on fatigue life”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 44 No. 2, pp. 125-134, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2003.10.018.
Nyamekye, P., Rahimpour Golroudbary, S., Piili, H., Luukka, P. and Kraslawski, A. (2023), “Impact of additive manufacturing on titanium supply chain: case of titanium alloys in automotive and aerospace industries”, Advances in Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, Vol. 6, 100112, doi: 10.1016/j.aime.2023.100112.
Okorokov, V., Morgantini, M., Gorash, Y., Comlekci, T., Mackenzie, D. and van Rijswick, R. (2018), “Corrosion fatigue of low carbon steel under compressive residual stress field”, Procedia Engineering, Vol. 213, pp. 674-681, doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2018.02.063.
Onawumi, P.Y., Roy, A., Silberschmidt, V.V. and Merson, E. (2018), “Ultrasonically assisted drilling of aerospace CFRP/Ti stacks”, Procedia CIRP, Vol. 77, pp. 383-386, doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2018.09.041.
Peng, Z., Zhang, X., Liu, L., Xu, G., Wang, G. and Zhao, M. (2023a), “Effect of high-speed ultrasonic vibration cutting on the microstructure, surface integrity, and wear behavior of titanium alloy”, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, Vol. 24, pp. 3870-3888, doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.04.036.
Peng, Z., Zhang, X., Zhang, Y., Liu, L., Xu, G., Wang, G. and Zhao, M. (2023b), “Wear resistance enhancement of Inconel 718 via high-speed ultrasonic vibration cutting and associated surface integrity evaluation under high-pressure coolant supply”, Wear, Vols 530-531, 205027, doi: 10.1016/j.wear.2023.205027.
Perry, S.S. and Tysoe, W.T. (2005), “Frontiers of fundamental tribological research”, Tribology Letters, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 151-161, doi: 10.1007/s11249-005-6142-8.
Prater, T. (2014), “Friction stir welding of metal matrix composites for use in aerospace structures”, Acta Astronautica, Vol. 93, pp. 366-373, doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.023.
Pushp, P., Dasharath, S.M. and Arati, C. (2022), “Classification and applications of titanium and its alloys”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 54, pp. 537-542, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.01.008.
Rathi, N., Kumar, P., Kumar khatkar, S. and Gupta, A. (2023), “Non-conventional machining of nickel based superalloys: a review”, Materials Today: Proceedings. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2023.02.176.
Rui, Z., Xing, A., Yi, W., Zhanqiang, L., Dong, Z. and Sheng, F. (2015), “Surface corrosion resistance in turning of titanium alloy”, International Journal of Corrosion, Vol. 2015, 823172, doi: 10.1155/2015/823172.
Sefer, B., Gaddam, R., Roa, J.J., Mateo, A., Antti, M.-L. and Pederson, R. (2016), “Chemical milling effect on the low cycle fatigue properties of cast Ti–6Al–2Sn–4Zr–2Mo alloy”, International Journal of Fatigue, Vol. 92, pp. 193-202, doi: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2016.07.003.
Shahwaz, M., Nath, P. and Sen, I. (2022), “A critical review on the microstructure and mechanical properties correlation of additively manufactured nickel-based superalloys”, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 907, 164530, doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.164530.
Sharma, V., Prakash Misra, J. and Singhal, S. (2023), “Machining of titanium based alloys using wire electric discharge machining: a review”, Materials Today: Proceedings. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2023.01.304.
Singh, M.K., Tewari, R., Zafar, S., Rangappa, S.M. and Siengchin, S. (2023), “A comprehensive review of various factors for application feasibility of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites”, Results in Materials, Vol. 17, 100355, doi: 10.1016/j.rinma.2022.100355.
Siva Prasad, K. and Chaitanya, G. (2023), “Influence of abrasive water jet machining process parameters on accuracy of hole dimensions in glass fiber reinforced polymer composites”, Materials Today: Proceedings. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2023.10.034.
Sommers, A., Wang, Q., Han, X., T'Joen, C., Park, Y. and Jacobi, A. (2010), “Ceramics and ceramic matrix composites for heat exchangers in advanced thermal systems—a review”, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 30 No. 11, pp. 1277-1291, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2010.02.018.
Soni, R., Verma, R., Kumar Garg, R. and Sharma, V. (2023), “A critical review of recent advances in the aerospace materials”, Materials Today: Proceedings. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2023.08.108.
Soo, S.L., Hood, R., Aspinwall, D.K., Voice, W.E. and Sage, C. (2011), “Machinability and surface integrity of RR1000 nickel based superalloy”, CIRP Annals, Vol. 60 No. 1, pp. 89-92, doi: 10.1016/j.cirp.2011.03.094.
Sreejith, S., Priyadarshini, A., Chaganti, P.K., Prabhu, G. and Mylavarapu, P. (2023), “Effect of machining operations on mechanical properties, surface integrity and corrosion resistance of tungsten heavy alloy”, Materials Today Communications, Vol. 37, 106930, doi: 10.1016/j.mtcomm.2023.106930.
Sreenu, B., Sarkar, R., Kumar, S.S.S., Chatterjee, S. and Rao, G.A. (2020), “Microstructure and mechanical behaviour of an advanced powder metallurgy nickel base superalloy processed through hot isostatic pressing route for aerospace applications”, Materials Science and Engineering: A, Vol. 797, 140254, doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2020.140254.
Suárez, A., Veiga, F., Polvorosa, R., Artaza, T., Holmberg, J., de Lacalle, L.N.L. and Wretland, A. (2019), “Surface integrity and fatigue of non-conventional machined alloy 718”, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 48, pp. 44-50, doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.09.041.
Sun, J., Wang, T., Su, A. and Chen, W. (2018), “Surface integrity and its influence on fatigue life when turning nickel alloy GH4169”, Procedia CIRP, Vol. 71, pp. 478-483, doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2018.05.029.
Takeyama, H. and Kato, S. (1991), “Burrless drilling by means of ultrasonic vibration”, CIRP Annals, Vol. 40 No. 1, pp. 83-86, doi: 10.1016/S0007-8506(07)61939-8.
Thakur, A. and Gangopadhyay, S. (2016), “State-of-the-art in surface integrity in machining of nickel-based super alloys”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 100, pp. 25-54, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2015.10.001.
Toubhans, B., Fromentin, G., Viprey, F., Karaouni, H. and Dorlin, T. (2020), “Machinability of inconel 718 during turning: cutting force model considering tool wear, influence on surface integrity”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 285, 116809, doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116809.
Turnbull, A., Mingard, K., Lord, J.D., Roebuck, B., Tice, D.R., Mottershead, K.J., Fairweather, N. and Bradbury, A.K. (2011), “Sensitivity of stress corrosion cracking of stainless steel to surface machining and grinding procedure”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 53 No. 10, pp. 3398-3415, doi: 10.1016/j.corsci.2011.06.020.
Ulutan, D. and Ozel, T. (2011), “Machining induced surface integrity in titanium and nickel alloys: a review”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 51 No. 3, pp. 250-280, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2010.11.003.
Wang, Y. and Monetta, T. (2023), “Systematic study of preparation technology, microstructure characteristics and mechanical behaviors for SiC particle-reinforced metal matrix composites”, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, Vol. 25, pp. 7470-7497, doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.07.145.
Wang, Z. and Niu, Y. (2023), “Effect of ultrasonic vibration extrusion cutting on the corrosion resistance of ultra-fine grained strips”, Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices, Vol. 8 No. 4, 100628, doi: 10.1016/j.jsamd.2023.100628.
Wang, X., Gao, X., Zhang, Z., Cheng, L., Ma, H. and Yang, W. (2021), “Advances in modifications and high-temperature applications of silicon carbide ceramic matrix composites in aerospace: a focused review”, Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 41 No. 9, pp. 4671-4688, doi: 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2021.03.051.
Wang, Y., Gao, G., Zhang, K., Wang, Y., Wang, X. and Xiang, D. (2024), “Modelling of tribological behavior and wear for micro-textured surfaces of Ti2AlNb intermetallic compounds machined with multi-dimensional ultrasonic vibration assistance”, Tribology International, Vol. 191, 109167, doi: 10.1016/j.triboint.2023.109167.
Watanabe, Y., Gonda, S., Sato, H. and Miura, S. (2018), “Fabrication of Ni-aluminides long-fiber reinforced Ni matrix composite by a reaction at narrow holes method”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 259, pp. 320-331, doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.02.032.
Williams, J.C. and Starke, E.A. (2003), “Progress in structural materials for aerospace systems”, in Suresh, S. (Ed.), The Golden Jubilee Issue—Selected Topics in Materials Science and Engineering: Past, Present and Future, Vol. 51, pp. 5775-5799, doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2003.08.023.
Wu, Q., Xie, D.-J., Si, Y., Zhang, Y.-D., Li, L. and Zhao, Y.-X. (2018), “Simulation analysis and experimental study of milling surface residual stress of Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al”, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 32, pp. 530-537, doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.03.015.
Xie, Z., Liu, Z., Han, L., Wang, B., Xin, M., Cai, Y. and Song, Q. (2022), “Optimizing amplitude to improve machined surface quality in longitudinal ultrasonic vibration-assisted side milling 2.5D C/SiC composites”, Composite Structures, Vol. 297, 115963, doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2022.115963.
Xu, J., Feng, P., Feng, F., Zha, H. and Liang, G. (2021), “Subsurface damage and burr improvements of aramid fiber reinforced plastics by using longitudinal–torsional ultrasonic vibration milling”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 297, 117265, doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2021.117265.
Xue, F., Zheng, K., Liao, W., Shu, J. and Miao, D. (2021), “Experimental investigation on fatigue property at room temperature of C/SiC composites machined by rotary ultrasonic milling”, Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 41 No. 6, pp. 3341-3356, doi: 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2021.01.046.
Yang, B., Wang, M., Liu, Z., Che, C., Zan, T., Gao, X. and Gao, P. (2023a), “Tool wear process monitoring by damping behavior of cutting vibration for milling process”, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 102, pp. 1069-1084, doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.07.077.
Yang, H., Yang, L., Yang, Z., Shan, Y., Gu, H., Ma, J., Zeng, X., Tian, T., Ma, S. and Wu, Z. (2023b), “Ultrasonic detection methods for mechanical characterization and damage diagnosis of advanced composite materials: a review”, Composite Structures, Vol. 324, 117554, doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2023.117554.
Yi, S., Chen, X., Li, J., Liu, Y., Ding, S. and Luo, J. (2021), “Macroscale superlubricity of Si-doped diamond-like carbon film enabled by graphene oxide as additives”, Carbon, Vol. 176, pp. 358-366, doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2021.01.147.
Yin, X., Li, X., Liu, Y., Geng, D. and Zhang, D. (2023), “Surface integrity and fatigue life of Inconel 718 by ultrasonic peening milling”, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, Vol. 22, pp. 1392-1409, doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.12.019.
Zhang, X., Chen, Y. and Hu, J. (2018), “Recent advances in the development of aerospace materials”, Progress in Aerospace Sciences, Vol. 97, pp. 22-34, doi: 10.1016/j.paerosci.2018.01.001.
Zhang, W., Li, Y., Dong, H., Yang, C., Jiang, X., Lou, D., Xue, H., Fang, K. and Wang, X. (2023a), “Correlation between machining-induced surface alterations and stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of au stenitic stainless steels”, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, Vol. 26, pp. 5076-5094, doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.08.239.
Zhang, B., Li, Y., Wang, F., Yang, L., Deng, J., Lin, Y. and He, Q. (2023b), “Machining inclination selection method for surface milling of CFRP workpieces with low cutting-induced damage”, Composite Structures, Vol. 304, 116495, doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2022.116495.
Zhang, J., Lin, G., Vaidya, U. and Wang, H. (2023c), “Past, present and future prospective of global carbon fibre composite developments and applications”, Composites Part B: Engineering, Vol. 250, 110463, doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2022.110463.
Zhang, X., Wang, D. and Peng, Z. (2023d), “Effects of high-pressure coolant on cooling mechanism in high-speed ultrasonic vibration cutting interfaces”, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 233, 121125, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.121125.
Acknowledgements
This research is funded by the Key Research Project of the Higher Education Institutions of Henan Province (No: 24A460022) and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No: 2023M743183).