Citation
Clutterbuck, D. (2013), "Where next with research in mentoring?", International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, Vol. 2 No. 3. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-09-2013-0048
Publisher
:Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Where next with research in mentoring?
Article Type: Commentary From: International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, Volume 2, Issue 3
It would be easy to conclude, from the vast numbers of research papers and studies on mentoring, that the field is well developed. In practice, that is far from the truth. It is noticeable, for example, that there are far more quantitative studies than qualitative ones. (The opposite is the case for the parallel field of coaching.) There are few studies that combine quantitative and qualitative methods. Moreover, mentoring isn’t a single, readily classifiable phenomenon or set of activities. When Kathy Kram (1985) conducted her first, small sample study 30 years ago, she examined a specific aspect of mentoring (informal, unsupported) in a specific culture (the USA). However, the kaleidoscope of mentoring is constantly changing. Across the world, the word mentoring has many meanings, most if not all are valid within their context.
A truism often forgotten by academics is that the intent of research is not just about their achieving tenure; it is about establishing knowledge that will have practical application. For a long time, the reputation of academic research was not helped by the divergence between the conclusions of academic papers and practitioner experience in the field, with regard to the relative merits of formal vs informal mentoring. This divergence was at least partially the result of failings in the structure and definition of much of the research, by both academics and practitioners – in particular, simplistic assumptions about what success looks like, and for whom; what the differences are between formal and informal arrangements; and about how many frogs a mentee seeking an informal mentoring relationship has to kiss before he or she finds a prince or princess, before they find a prince; and what are the difference between formal and informal arrangements.
Several years ago, I proposed five tests for mentoring research, based on the analyses I had made in my own studies. The descriptions below are taken from my article in the International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching (2003):
Definition Is it clear what kind of relationship is being measured? Some research mixes participants in structured programmes with those in informal relationships and some even with relationships, where one party does not realise they are part of a mentoring duo. Some papers mix in-line relationships with off-line (leaving aside the argument as to whether it is possible to be a mentor in a boss-subordinate relationship).
There are, of course, dozens of definitions of mentoring, yet many studies fail to be precise about which definition they are following. Many, mainly US-originated definitions, emphasize sponsorship and hands-on help by the mentor; others, mostly European and Australian in origin, see such behaviours as unacceptable within the mentor role. Unless it is clear, which model is being followed in a particular piece of research, it is often impossible to draw conclusions with confidence, or to make comparisons with other studies. Meta-studies and literature reviews may compound the problem, because they tend to begin from the (false) assumption that everyone is measuring the same phenomenon.
The issue is made even more complex by the recognition by some researchers in the area that multiple, simultaneous mentoring relationships are also a common factor. Clearly, the dynamics of one relationship within a web of others may be different from those of a single, intensive mentoring dyad.
To increase the validity of research in mentoring, it is necessary in my view to provide a precise definition of exactly what kind of relationship is being measured and to ensure that all the samples lie within that definition. Some research has attempted to get round this problem by asking people about broad helping relationships, but then the data is too general to apply meaningfully to specific types of mentoring relationship. Recognising that mentoring is a class of phenomena and that each phenomenon needs to be investigated in its own right, would be a major step forward in research quality in this field. (An interesting analogy is in the field of medical research, specifically into the origins of autism. Almost no progress towards an understanding of this condition had been made until recently, when researchers began to recognise it as a number of related and interacting sub-conditions.)
Context A wide variety of contextual actors can affect the relationship and the scheme. At a minimum, these will impact upon the intent (their own or that of third parties, such as the organisation) mentor and mentee bring to the relationship.
Other contextual variables include the level of training participants receive, the way in which they are matched (with or without an element of choice) and whether the relationship is supported as it develops (for example, by additional sources of learning and/or advice). Other contextual factors might include differences in race, age or gender.
Trying to account for all the contextual variables that might apply, especially when a research sample is drawn from many organisations or schemes would be very difficult to do without vast sample sizes. This suggests the need for relatively narrow selection criteria – for example, senior managers, in company-sponsored mentoring relationships of at least six months duration with a paid external, professional mentor; or young males 12-15 from deprived backgrounds at risk, paired with male role models between 10 and 20 years older. The more variables subsequently introduced (eg gender variation), the larger the sample size will need to be to draw conclusions with confidence.
Process provides another set of variables. It is clear, for example, that e-mentoring differs in some fundamental aspects from traditional face-to-face mentoring. Simple process factors, such as frequency of meeting, can have a major impact on outcomes. At the very least, studies need to allow for or try to eliminate such variables. Studies attempting to link personality to success of mentoring relationships, for example, would be better grounded if they also investigated the degree, to which personality factors resulted in specific behaviours, perceived as helpful or unhelpful to the maintenance of the relationship and to the achievement of its goals. (This classification into maintenance and achievement oriented behaviours appears to be very relevant across the whole area of mentoring relationship dynamics.)
Outcomes Much of the research literature uses Kram's functions of a mentor (or the subsequent recasting of the functions by Noe, 1988) as measures of outcomes. Yet the functions are a mixture of behaviours, enablers and outcomes and so for the most part unsuitable for this use. Moreover, outcomes are almost never related back to goals/intent. The reality is that different types of mentoring relationship have different expectations of outcomes; and even different dyads within the same scheme. Failure to recognise these means that the purpose of the relationship is ignored – which suggests the research fails the fifth test, that of relevance.
It is also remarkable how few studies attempt to measure outcomes for both parties. Yet mentoring is an interaction between two partners, with the outcomes highly dependent on the motivation of both.
Relevance The so-what test is a standard element in guidance on research design, but it seems often to be honoured mostly in the breach. My own experience has been that I struggled to get co-operation from companies until I was able to articulate very clearly the practical value both of the expected research outcomes and of participating in the research process itself. Even then, maintaining commitment for a longitudinal study has proven very difficult. I recommend anyone designing future studies to convene at any early stage of research design a panel of practitioners – those, who the research is intended to inform and benefit – to help shape and ground the project.
Ten years later these tests still seem highly relevant. Many of the articles I am asked to review for various journals fail on at least one of them. Perhaps the most recurrent problem is that people tend to see their particular perspective on mentoring as the only one or the “right” one.
If I were to try to define an “ideal” research paper in this field, it would have the following characteristics:
Arises out of a specific need to know, from the field (e.g. what works best in terms of approaches to matching, in what contexts).
Includes clarity about the type, style and context of the relationships or programme being measured.
Involves a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods, so that each can enrich and inform the other.
Includes deep questioning of previous research – e.g. just how valid is it.
Questions instruments used – do they measure what they purport to measure? Have they been adequately tested on the specific phenomenon being measured in this research? Are there contextual variables that might influence the validity of these in this application?.
Is based in a truly international perspective and literature base (not just USA or European).
Researchers, who take this approach, can make a major contribution to some of the burning and under-researched issues on the mentoring agenda. These include:
The dynamics of multi-cultural, multi-country mentoring programmes – for example, how do you balance consistency with local adaptation?
Managing endings in mentoring – it's now a decade since David Megginson and I (2005) did a broad-brush examination of this and our results have never been retested.
The rising phenomenon of professional supervision for mentors.
Meta-models of mentoring: sponsorship and developmental mentoring, or transactional and relational mentoring are separate but overlapping constructs. In many cultures, they are used in different combinations.
Mentee competencies: for example, how can we help people with few social skills and poor communication skills be more effective in their roles as mentees?
Training of mentoring programme managers – what lessons can be learned from experience?
David Clutterbuck
David Clutterbuck Partnership, Maidenhead, UK
Acknowledgements
An earlier version of this article was published in “EMCC International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching – ISSN 1815-804X, Volume I, Issue 1, September 2003”, available at: www.emccouncil.org. This extract has been reproduced with permission from EMCC.
References
Kram, K. (1985), Mentoring at Work: Developmental Relationships in Organizational Life, Scott Foresman, Glenview, IL
Noe, R.A. (1988), “An investigation of the determinants of successful assigned mentoring relationships”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 41 No. 3, pp. 457-479
Further reading
Clutterbuck, D. (2003), “The problem with research in mentoring”, EMCC International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching, Vol. I No. 1, available at: www.emccouncil.orgClutterbuck, D. and Meggison, D. (2005), Techniques for Coaching and Mentoring, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford