Abstract
Purpose
This current study examines the moderating role of gender in the nexus between the dimensions of work-family culture and work-family enrichment in the hospitality industry.
Design/methodology/approach
This study employed a cross-sectional survey approach to conveniently gather data from a sample of 296 respondents in the Ghanaian hospitality industry. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to examine the data received from the respondents with the aid of IBM SPSS Statistics (V26.0) software and the PROCESS macro for SPSS (V3.5).
Findings
As hypothesised in the study, the dimensions of work-family culture significantly predicted work-family enrichment. Further, the results revealed that gender moderated the nexus between the dimensions of work-family culture and work-family enrichment.
Practical implications
The findings of this study imply that hotels in the hospitality industry should foster a working environment that embraces a positive work and family culture that ultimately influences the quality of work and family life of an employee, taking into consideration their gender.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this current study is amongst the first to examine the moderating role of gender in the nexus between the dimensions of work-family culture and work-family enrichment in the hospitality industry.
Keywords
Citation
Adu, I.N., Owusu Boakye, K. and Kyei-Frimpong, M. (2024), "Finding solace in work-family culture as a predictor of work-family enrichment; does gender matter?", International Hospitality Review, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/IHR-11-2023-0053
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2024, Isaac Nyarko Adu, Kwame Owusu Boakye and Michael Kyei-Frimpong
License
Published in International Hospitality Review. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/ legalcode
Introduction
The hospitality industry significantly contributes to Ghana’s economy, encompassing hotels, restaurants, tourism, and related services. According to the Ghana Tourism Authority (GTA) report in 2021, the industry accounted for approximately 6.7% of Ghana’s GDP in 2020, employing over 1.5 million people. As the industry continues to grow, it faces unique challenges related to employee work-family balance due to the nature of hospitality work, which often involves irregular and prolonged working hours, customer service demands, and seasonal fluctuations. These factors create considerable work-family conflicts and strain employees’ well-being and family life. Further, the recent juggling between work and family roles has become prevalent due to changes in role expectations. Consequently, organisations and individuals are actively endeavouring to alleviate the strain of balancing work and family life, commonly referred to as “work-family conflict” (De Gieter, De Cooman, Bogaerts, & Verelst, 2022). Despite the prevailing emphasis in the current body of research on the conflicting nature of this work and family life, it offers only a partial view of individuals’ challenges as they strive to harmonise their work and family responsibilities (Aryee, Srinivas, & Tan, 2005). This has triggered the need for scholars to focus on the positive side of the work-family interface, hence work-family enrichment (Bansal & Agarwal, 2020; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; Liu, Wei, & Lee, 2022; Lo Presti & Mauno, 2016).
Work-family enrichment refers to the positive spillover of resources, skills, and experiences between work and family domains, leading to greater well-being and performance in both spheres (Van den Eynde & Mortelmans, 2020). Work-family enrichment is a bi-directional concept: work-to-family enrichment and family-to-work enrichment. However, this study focuses on work-to-family enrichment, as Awan, Ahmad, Naveed, Scholz, Adnan, & Han (2021) assert that workplace characteristics are better predictors of work-family enrichment than family characteristics. Scholars propose that organisations must have an in-depth understanding of the predictors of work-family enrichment since the resources employees obtain from the workplace can enhance the performance of their family roles and also have social and psychological implications (Awan et al., 2021; Bansal & Agarwal, 2020; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; Liu et al., 2022). In this regard, a work-family culture is proposed as a potential predictor of work-family enrichment (Bansal & Agarwal, 2020; Baral & Bhargava, 2011; Mishra & Bhatnagar, 2019). Thompson, Beauvais, and Lyness, (1999, p. 394) refer to work-family culture as the “shared assumptions, beliefs and values regarding the extent to which an organisation supports and values the integration of employees’ work and family lives”. Kossek, Perrigino, and Rock (2021) delineate that a nurturing work-family culture is underpinned by implicit norms that influence individual behaviours, facilitating the accrual of essential resources such as flexibility, temporal autonomy, and advisory support. The accessibility and utilisation of these workplace resources are instrumental in empowering individuals to fulfil their family roles more effectively (Settersten et al., 2020), engendering a positive orientation towards their workplace responsibilities. This enhanced alignment between work and family domains catalyses work-family enrichment (Mishra & Bhatnagar, 2019).
Admittedly, the linkage between work-family culture and work-family enrichment has been considered in prior studies (Agrawal & Mahajan, 2021; Bansal & Agarwal, 2020; Lapierre, Li, Kwan, Greenhaus, DiRenzo, & Shao, 2018; Mishra & Bhatnagar, 2019; Lo Presti & Mauno, 2016). For instance, Lapierre et al. (2018) observed that family-oriented organisational policies and work-family culture were statistically significant with work-family enrichment. Similarly, Lo Presti and Mauno (2016) found that supervisors’ overall social and work-family organisational support had a clear and beneficial impact on the work-family enrichment of employees in the Italian food-processing industry. Yet dearth of studies exist linking work-family culture to work-family enrichment in the hospitality industry. Further, it is significant to note that work-family culture has three distinct dimensions: management support, negative career consequences, and organisational time demands (Thompson et al., 1999). Nonetheless, whilst a few research investigated the many components of work-family culture (Baral & Bhargava, 2011; Gordon, Whelan-Berry, & Hamilton, 2007), they were primarily concerned with one dimension, thus, supervisor support (Siu et al., 2010). Other dimensions, such as organisational time demand and negative career consequences, have been completely overlooked; nonetheless, they require equal consideration since they play significant roles in balancing work and family roles (Gerson, 2009; De Janasz, Behson, Jonsen, & Lankau, 2013). Likewise, to the researcher’s best knowledge, there is no readily available literature linking work-family culture to work-family enrichment in the Ghanaian context. Hence, there is a need to contextualise the relationship in Ghana, where strong family bonds and communal values characterise society, and extended family systems play a crucial role in daily life (Ametorwo, Ofori, Annor, & Dartey-Baah, 2021). Thus, understanding these family structures is vital, as they can influence employees’ expectations and needs regarding work-family balance. In such a context, work-family cultures are needed when considering an extended family’s role and how it shapes employees’ responsibilities and support systems outside of work, leading to work-family enrichment. Hence, the first objective of this study is to bridge this long-lasting gap in the literature by examining the dimensions of work-family culture (management support, negative career consequences, and organisational time demand) as a predictor of work-family enrichment.
Gender is a defining attribute that individuals in a culture adopt and associate with, influenced by cultural expressions and elements within their community. The establishment of a comprehensive description of gender roles in Ghana is important in light of the prevailing patriarchal structure within the society (Dery, Cuthbert, Nakojah, & Segbefia, 2022). Hence, gender disparities rooted in traditional Ghanaian societies are notable, with distinct roles assigned to men and women within the work and family sphere. Within Ghana’s societal framework, men and women bear differing responsibilities; men’s social identity is closely intertwined with career pursuits, whilst women’s social roles are primarily associated with family obligations (Ametorwo et al., 2021). Female employees typically exhibit a heightened concern for family matters than their male counterparts, with work commitments often encroaching upon their time and energy allocated to familial responsibilities (Rawal, 2023; Duxbury, Bardoel, & Halinski, 2021; Miller & Riley, 2022). Women are underrepresented in the realm of economic development, facing challenges in reconciling their career aspirations with the responsibilities of motherhood due to cultural and societal constraints.
Nevertheless, a shift is occurring in the current era, as the Ghanaian government is implementing various measures to foster education and enhance the participation of women in the labour market (Zolnikov, 2020). Moreover, variations in reactions to work-family culture in terms of flexible work arrangements are observed between men and women, as scholars have illuminated how individuals’ perceptions of the workplace and their attitudes and behaviours toward organisations are influenced by gender dynamics (Chen, Zhang, Sanders, & Xu 2018). Notwithstanding, evidence from the extant literature suggests that individual differences interact with situations to influence work-family experiences (Aboobaker & Edward, 2020; Baral & Bhargava, 2011; Bansal & Agarwal, 2020). For instance, Bansal and Agarwal (2020) highlight that an individual’s gender also plays a critical role in shaping an individual’s evaluative processes towards work-family experiences. Although gender is considered the primary determinant of personality variations and has the potential to shape the development of policies (Neubert & Taggar, 2004), the existing body of research on the moderating influence of gender remains inadequate as no readily available literature has systematically investigated the impact of individual differences on the direct nexus between the dimensions of work-family culture aspects and work-family enrichment in the hospitality industry. Therefore, the second objective of this study is to explore the plausible moderating role of Gender in the relationship between the dimensions of work-family culture and work-family enrichment in the hospitality industry.
The current study makes a significant contribution to the understanding of work-family dynamics in the hospitality industry. This is because, despite the plethora of evidence espoused in the literature, studies on the relationships between the dimensions of work-family culture and work-family enrichment are rare in the hospitality industry, as Liu et al. (2022) call for more studies to be conducted in the hospitality industry. Given this, the authors postulate that a work environment that fosters support can encompass various forms of informal social support from colleagues and supervisors, including general and family-oriented assistance. Also, our study highlights the significance of a work-family culture that honours employees’ family responsibilities and provides appropriate support and resources. Further, our study also examines gender disparities and the moderating role of gender roles in shaping work-family culture and enrichment. This would help organisations in the hospitality industry to create personalised work-family balance plans for men and women.
The subsequent sections look at the literature review and hypotheses formulation, methods, results and findings, discussions of findings, theoretical and practical implications, and limitations of the study and future research.
Literature review
Conservation of resource theory
According to the COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989), individuals in an organisation strive to accumulate and maintain resources. As a result, they try as much as possible not to engage in activities that tend to deplete their acquired resources. Hobfoll (1989) viewed a resource as the “single unit necessary for understanding stress”. He further defined resources as “those objects, personal characteristics, conditions or energies that the individual values or that serve as means for the attainment of the objectives, personal characteristics, conditions or energies” (p. 515). According to Tran (2019), these resources may be personal or external. Tran (2019) postulates that personal resources are characterised by individuals’ internal locus of control, self-efficacy, and resilience, amongst others, whilst external resources, on the other hand, are not controlled by an individual, such as support (organisational, social, and supervisory). The accessibility of these resources differs according to the characteristics of the setting within which an activity is performed. Also, the worth of resources varies from person to person, depending on the individual’s experiences and circumstances. For example, spending time with one’s family can be seen as an important resource, but it can also be seen as a threat to other resources, such as one’s sense of self-worth. Despite the rigorousness of the COR theory, which provides a useful framework for understanding how individuals strive to acquire and maintain resources, it is not exempted from limitations/drawbacks in terms of its applicability in organisations. First, COR theory assumes that individuals always seek to acquire and maintain resources, which may not be the case for everyone (Kaplan & Gangestad, 2005). Secondly, the theory assumes that all resources are equally valuable and interchangeable, which may not be true (Gorgievski, Halbesleben, & Bakker, 2011). On the third count, the theory does not account for the role of social and cultural factors in shaping resource acquisition and depletion (Halbesleben & Buckley, 2004). Finally, the theory does not provide clear guidance on how individuals can best manage and allocate their resources in different situations (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012).
One key principle of COR theory is the resource investment principle, which suggests that individuals are more likely to invest resources (such as time, energy, and effort) in environments where they perceive a likelihood of obtaining valuable returns on their investment (Hobfoll, 1989). Drawing on this principle, we posit that a work-family culture can be viewed as a resource in itself, where employees perceive it as a valuable asset that enhances their ability to manage their work and family roles effectively. As a result, they are more willing to invest resources such as time, energy, and commitment in both their work and family domains. For instance, employees who work in hotels with a work-family culture may feel less stressed about managing their work and family responsibilities. They may have greater autonomy and flexibility to adjust their work schedules to accommodate family needs, leading to enhanced work-family enrichment.
Ecological systems theory (EST)
The Ecological Systems Theory, originally proposed by Bronfenbrenner (1986) and further developed by Grzywacz and Marks (2000), elucidates the intricate interplay of various elements that shape the experience of work-family dynamics. These elements encompass diverse factors, including processes, individual attributes, contextual considerations, and the temporal dimension. Despite the theory’s wide-ranging applications, EST is not without limitations. According to Constantino, Schlüter, Weber, and Wijermans (2021), the ecological systems theory is oversimplified. Thus, according to them, whilst the ecological systems theory aims to account for the complex interplay of various environmental systems, its broad categorisations can sometimes obscure the dynamics within each system, as this can lead to a generalised approach that may not fully capture the intricacies of individual experiences or the specificities of different cultural contexts. Furthermore, McCoy (2022) posits that the application of the ecological systems theory across different cultural contexts raises questions about its universality. The author suggests that the theory, rooted in Western perspectives, may not adequately account for the diversity of experiences and values in non-Western cultures, as this can lead to a form of cultural bias, where the applicability of EST’s constructs and assumptions in diverse cultural settings is assumed without sufficient critical examination.
Scholarly literature posits that individuals inherently exhibit proclivities towards higher levels of functioning and their developmental progress is facilitated through continuous interactions with their immediate environment (Koole, Schlinkert, Maldei, & Baumann, 2019). Notably, the enrichment of individuals primarily emanates from the resources available in their work or family environments, acting as the conduits through which they engage with and navigate their surroundings. Drawing upon the ecological theory, it is postulated that specific demand characteristics, such as gender, personality traits, and socio-economic status, can influence the work-family enrichment process. This suggests that individual traits interact with the surrounding environment to acquire additional resources or derive greater benefits from the existing accessible resources. Given this, we argue that women in the hospitality industry might experience or perceive managerial support differently than men, potentially due to gender norms or biases. For instance, women might benefit more from managerial practices that acknowledge and accommodate their family responsibilities, thus enhancing work-family enrichment. More so, Gender plays a critical role here, as negative career consequences for prioritising family over work may be more pronounced for women, reflecting societal expectations about gender roles. These external pressures can diminish the positive spillover from work to family, making it essential to understand how gendered expectations influence individuals’ experiences of work-family enrichment. Moreover, drawing on the EST gender significantly moderates the impact of these demands on work-family enrichment, with women often facing greater difficulties balancing these demands due to traditional caregiving roles.
Work-family culture and work-family enrichment
A plethora of studies have found work-family culture or family-friendly policies in organisations to be a strong predictor of work-family enrichment amongst employees (Bansal & Agarwal, 2020; Chambel, Castanheira, & Santos, 2023; Crain & Stevens, 2018; Martinez-Sanchez, Perez-Perez, Vela-Jimenez, & Abella-Garces, 2018; Mishra & Bhatnagar, 2019; Straub, Beham, Fayad, & Ramadan, 2023). For instance, Bansal and Agarwal (2020) revealed in their study that work-family support significantly predicts work-family enrichment. Likewise, Chen et al. (2018) assert that providing employees with flexible working arrangements is a valuable human resource management strategy that results in work-family enrichment. Baral and Bhargava (2011) found that work-family culture significantly predicts work-family enrichment. They argue that the significance of a more comprehensive and collective sense of organisational support for promoting employee work-family enrichment cannot be overstated, as it is crucial for enhancing employee satisfaction and performance in their familial domain. Lo Presti and Mauno (2016) recruited 447 employees working in the Italian food-processing industry. They found that job control, supervisors’ overall social support, and work-family organisational support had a clear and beneficial impact on the work-family enrichment of employees. Additionally, the organisation’s implementation of family-friendly policies and cultivating a work culture prioritising family-friendliness are key components of a supportive work context. Given this, our study hypothesises that;
Management support is positively and significantly related to work-family enrichment.
Negative career consequences is negatively and significantly related to work-family enrichment.
Organisational time demand is negatively and significantly related to work-family enrichment.
Moderating role of gender
A Plethora of studies indicated notable differences between men and women in their perspectives, evaluations, acquisition, and utilisation of various resources within their work and family domains. These gender-based disparities can significantly influence how individuals experience enrichment in their work and family lives. However, there is a scarcity of studies investigating whether men or women experience greater work-to-family enrichment (WFE) due to the dimensions of work-family culture (management support, negative career consequences, and organisational time demand) in the hospitality industry. Therefore, it is pertinent to investigate whether men or women acquire more resources to experience increased levels of WFE.
McNall, Nicklin, and Masuda, (2010) argue that women may acquire workplace resources more than men because they give more time to their family responsibilities. Likewise, Hofstede (2016) contends that individuals with feminine traits prioritise quality of life, cooperation, and mutual care. More so, it is noteworthy that males, although burdened with substantial work and family obligations, exhibit a substantially lower inclination to perceive their workplace culture as accommodating towards their work and family demands (Elbaz, Salem, Elsetouhi, & Abdelhamied, 2020). Akanji, Mordi, and Ajonbadi (2020) believe that this phenomenon may be attributed to the current array of work-life balance policies offered by businesses, which predominantly cater to the needs of women in the workforce whilst failing to adequately meet the needs of men in similar positions.
In addition, Duxbury et al. (2021) found that female individuals tend to hold a greater inclination towards perceiving the utilisation of work-life balance initiatives, such as flexi-time, as potentially leading to negative repercussions with their employers and subsequently yielding unfavourable consequences for their career trajectories. Russo and Morandin (2023) posit that individuals facing challenging work-family circumstances, particularly women, possess the capacity to seek assistance and cultivate working settings that ultimately facilitate the attainment of more favourable work-family enrichment. According to Barglowski (2023), women demonstrate a propensity to utilise the resources and skills acquired via their employment, such as support and time management abilities, for the betterment of their families. Van der Lippe and Lippényi (2020) demonstrated that women possess more extensive managerial support networks than men, along with a higher quantity of individual sources of support.
Given the above, we argue that female employees exhibit heightened responsiveness to family-friendly policies. This propensity stems from their predominant responsibility for managing family matters, engendering a pronounced sense of obligation to balance their work and family roles. Essentially, for female employees, the implementation of work-family culture in terms of family-friendly policies is perceived as instrumental in facilitating a more seamless integration of their work and family responsibilities. Consequently, we anticipate that gender significantly moderates the relationship between the dimensions of work-family culture and work-family enrichment. Therefore, we hypothesise that;
The relationship between management support and work-family enrichment will be stronger for women than men.
The relationship between negative career consequences and work-family enrichment will be stronger for women than men.
The relationship between organisational time demand and work-family enrichment will be stronger for women than men.
Conceptual framework
Figure 1 displays the hypothesized relationships among the constructs understudy.
Methodology
Research design and sample
Our study employed a cross-sectional survey approach to conveniently gather data from 296 participants proportionally recruited from 14 hotels in the Western Region of Ghana who agreed to participate in the study upon reaching out to them. Convenience sampling was employed because of the busy and rotational nature of the work schedule of the hotel employees, which made it arduous to recruit individuals willing to participate in the study. Drawing on Miller and Brewer’s (2003) approach for determining sample size, 296 participants were sampled from 1,128 target population. During the data collection process, participants were requested to respond to the enquiries presented on paper sheets. The workers were approached at their respective lunch hours in the affiliated hotels.
Measures
Work-family culture. This construct was measured using a 20-item scale developed by Thompson et al. (1999). The scale was measured on three items namely, managerial support (11 items), negative career consequences (5 items), and organisational time demand (4 items). Sample items include; “In general, managers in this organisation are quite accommodating of family-related needs” (managerial support), “In this organisation employees who participate in available work–family programs (e.g. job sharing, part-time work) are viewed as less serious about their careers than those who do not participate in these programs” (negative career consequences), and “Employees are often expected to take work home at night and/or on weekends” (sorganisational time demand). The scale was measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 “Strongly Disagree” to 5 “Strongly Agree.” This measurement scale has been used in prominent studies regarding its reliability and validity Bansal & Agarwal (2020), Thompson et al. (1999). The reliability of the scale was managerial support (0.769), negative career consequences (0.869), and organisational time demand (0.779).
Work-family enrichment. This construct was measured using a 9-item scale developed and validated by Carlson, Kacmar, Wayne, and Grzywacz (2006). The scale was measured on three items, namely, work-to-family enrichment development (3 items), work-to-family enrichment affect (3 items), and work-to-family enrichment capital (3 items). Sample items include; My involvement in my work helps me to understand different viewpoints, and this helps me be a better family member (work-to-family enrichment development), “My involvement in my work puts me in a good mood, and this helps me be a better family member” (work-to-family enrichment affect), and “My involvement in my work helps me feel personally fulfilled and this helps me be a better family member” (work-to-family enrichment capital). The scale was measured on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 “Strongly Disagree” to 7 “Strongly Agree.” This measurement scale have been used in prominent studies in terms of its reliability and validity (Bansal & Agarwal, 2020; Kalliath, Kalliath, Chan, & Chan, 2020). To create a composite scale, the three dimensions were combined additively. The reliability of the scale was 0.890.
Data analysis
In this study, descriptive and inferential statistics were used to examine the data received from the respondents with the aid of IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 26.0) software and PROCESS macro for SPSS. First, the authors used a t-test to ascertain the presence of significant mean differences in work-family enrichment based on Gender, marital status, and parental status. The next assessment encompassed a preliminary analysis of mean, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, reliability analysis, and a bivariate correlation. The final assessment was concerned with the moderation analysis. In controlling for common method bias, participants were duly informed of the assurance of anonymity and confidentiality regarding their comments, with explicit clarification that the data would solely be utilised for research purposes (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). More so, distinct levels of the Likert scale were employed and also the authors physically separated the predictor and outcome variables (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2012).
Pilot study
A small-scale pilot study was undertaken to see how reliable and appropriate the measurement scale was in the Ghanaian context. At the preparatory stage of the study, it was also necessary to ensure that all inaccuracies, miscalculations, and errors in the questionnaires were fixed before the actual survey took place, hence the need for the pilot study. In this vein, we conveniently recruited ten employees working in hotels in Winneba to participate in the pilot study. The selected respondents who took part in the pilot study were not included in the final data collection process, as this was because the researcher did not want them to see the data collection as a problematic process since that may affect future studies negatively. The data collected in the pilot study was analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 26.0) to assess the reliability of the instruments through the Cronbach’s Alpha method. Management support recorded a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.932, negative career consequences (0.901), organisational time demand (0.914), and work-family enrichment (0.827).
Ethical consideration
In our study, adherence to the ethical principles governing the utilisation of human subjects was given precedence. All prospective respondents were solicited to give informed consent before engaging in the data collection phase. This process entailed providing the respondents with exhaustive information about the study, encompassing its scholarly relevance and the importance of their participation, thereby ensuring transparency and adherence to ethical principles in research conduct. More so, our study meticulously adhered to critical ethical principles, including anonymity and confidentiality. To safeguard the anonymity of the participants, firm assurances were given that their identities would remain undisclosed and inaccessible. Consequently, the data collection process was carefully designed to exclude personal identifiers, such as the respondent’s name, social security number, phone number, or address. Moreover, the principle of confidentiality was rigorously upheld, where respondents were thoroughly informed that their information would remain detached from their identities, and assurances were provided that the information gathered would be devoted exclusively to scholarly exploration. This comprehensive approach reinforced the study’s ethical integrity, affirming the researchers' commitment to the principles of anonymity, confidentiality, and voluntary participation.
Results
Table 1 shows the demographic information of the respondents who participated in the study. From the table, the sample comprises 296 respondents, with males constituting 173 respondents (58.45%) compared to 123 female respondents (41.55%). With respect to age, the data highlights a predominance of younger individuals, with the largest group being those below 30 years (162 respondents, 54.73%). This is followed by the 31–40 age group, accounting for 28.39% (84 respondents). The 41–50 years and 51–60 age groups were smaller in comparison, with 8.11% (24 respondents) and 8.77% (26 respondents) respectively, indicating lesser representation of older age groups in the sample. Regarding marital status, a significant portion of the sample, representing 224 (75.68%) respondents, were single, with 72 respondents representing 24.32% are married.
In Table 2, the t-test results indicate no significant difference in mean between males and females (t = 0.175, ns). In the case of marital status, there was a significant mean difference between married respondents and singles such that the married respondents reported a higher level of work-family enrichment (t = 2.457, p < 0.05).
Hypotheses testing
The result in Table 3 indicates that management support positively correlates with WFE (r = 0.216, p < 0.01), indicating support for H1a. This implies that the more employees receive support from management, the more their work and family lives are enriched. The hypothesis (H1b) that negative career consequences are negatively and significantly related to work-family enrichment was supported (r = −0.554, p < 0.01). This implies that when employees face negative career consequences, they are less likely to experience work-family enrichment. In furtherance, it was found that organisational time demand was negatively and significantly related to work-family enrichment (r = −0.486, p < 0.01), indicating support for H1c. This implies that when employees are required to dedicate more time to work-related activities, they may have less time and energy to devote to their family responsibilities, leading to lower levels of work-family enrichment.
H2a posited that the positive relationship between management support and work-family enrichment would be stronger for women than men. The results in Table 4 supported this hypothesis (β = 0.24, t = 3.62, p > 0.001) (see Figure 2). This implies that the impact of management support on work-family enrichment is more pronounced for female employees than male employees. Further, the results, as presented in Table 5 indicate that the prediction that the negative relationship between negative career consequences would be stronger for women than men (β = −0.45, t = −9.34, p > 0.001) (see Figure 3) was supported. This implies that negative career consequences have a more pronounced detrimental effect on work-family enrichment for women than men. Finally, the results in Table 6 indicate that the negative between organisational time demand and work-family enrichment is stronger for women than men (β = −0.39, t = −5.79, p > 0.001) (see Figure 4), indicating support for H2c. This implies that when employees face higher organisational time demands, it has a more significant negative impact on work-family enrichment for women than men.
Discussion and conclusion
Discussion
Our results indicate that management support positively relates to work-family enrichment, indicating support for H1a. These results imply that when employees perceive support from their supervisors in managing work and family demands, they are more likely to experience work-family enrichment. Also, this support can manifest in various ways, such as flexible scheduling, understanding of family-related responsibilities, and encouragement to prioritise family needs. More so, our results revealed that negative career consequences are negatively related to work-family enrichment, indicating support for H1b. This implies that when employees perceive that their organisation’s work culture leads to negative repercussions for devoting time to family responsibilities, it declines their ability to experience work-family enrichment. Organisational policies and practices that discourage employees from prioritising family commitments can negatively affect their overall well-being and work-family enrichment. In addition, our results indicate that organisational time demand negatively relates to work-family enrichment, indicating support for H1c. This implies that when employees cannot balance their higher time demands at work, it reduces their ability to devote time and resources to their family domain, leading to decreased work-family enrichment. Therefore, organisations prioritising employees’ time and providing resources to manage workload effectively are likelier to foster work-family enrichment. Theoretically, our findings support the COR theory in that work-family culture can facilitate resource movement by providing employees with the necessary resources to effectively balance their work and family responsibilities. Empirically, our results are consistent with Bansal and Agarwal (2020), who found that work-family support significantly predicts work-family enrichment in situations where the provision of work-family friendly policies, in the form of assistance from supervisors for employees’ management of the demands of work and family. Our findings align with Chen et al. (2018), who found that providing employees with flexible working arrangements to balance their work and family life results in work-family enrichment. In addition, our findings align with prior studies that emphasised the significance of managerial support, negative career consequences, and work demands and time pressures in influencing work-family balance and enrichment (Baral & Bhargava, 2011; Lo Presti & Mauno, 2016).
Our findings also support the moderating role of gender in the relationship between work-family culture dimensions and work-family enrichment, indicating support for H2a, H2b, and H2c. Our findings suggest that women who receive supervisor support are more likely to experience work-family enrichment, as this support may empower them to balance both domains effectively. Moreover, our findings imply that women may be more sensitive to negative career consequences from devoting time to family responsibilities, leading to a greater decline in work-family enrichment. In addition, our findings imply women’s higher time investment and greater responsibilities in family activities (organisational time demands) have detrimental effects on their ability to effectively balance work and family life. Theoretically, our findings in Ecological Systems Theory emphasises the interplay of individual attributes, contextual factors, and the surrounding environment. Women may face unique challenges in managing work and family roles due to societal expectations and gender roles, making them more sensitive to the influence of work-family culture on their enrichment. Empirically, our findings are consistent with Ekmekci, Metin Camgoz, & Bayhan Karapinar (2021), who found that women may benefit more from supervisor support in managing their work and family roles, potentially due to societal expectations and gender role socialisation that emphasise women’s roles as caregivers and homemakers. Also, our findings align with Barglowski (2023), who, in their study, revealed the positive ripple effects of employment on family life, particularly through the resources and skills women acquire, such as support networks and time management abilities. More so, our findings are consistent with Van der Lippe and Lippényi (2020), who suggest that women may possess more or perhaps different kinds of resources to navigate work-family challenges, albeit recognising that the mere presence of these networks does not necessarily guarantee their effectiveness or the absence of workplace discrimination. In addition, our findings are consistent with Duxbury et al. (2021) postulation of a critical perception amongst women regarding the potential career repercussions of utilising work-life balance initiatives like flexi-time.
Theoretical implications
Our paper contributes significantly to the extant body of knowledge, particularly within the domain of hospitality research, by bringing to bear several novel findings. To our knowledge, this study represents a premier empirical investigation within the hospitality literature that delineates the relationship between the dimensions of work-family culture (management support, negative career consequences, and organisational time demand) and work-family enrichment. A further significant contribution of our paper is identifying gender as a moderator in the relationships between the dimensions of work-family culture (management support, negative career consequences, and organisational time demand) and work-family enrichment. This augmentation of existing knowledge represents the first empirical endeavour to establish the moderating effect of gender in the said relationship, to the best of our understanding.
Implication for practice
The findings delineate recommendations for managerial guidance, and they aim to foster an environment that promotes work-family enrichment, especially in recognising the significant role of work culture and the nuances of gender dynamics. First, hotel managers should not view employee engagement in family responsibilities as hindering job performance. This is because such involvement can also benefit the employee’s professional life. Thus, family roles can facilitate personal growth, broaden perspectives, enhance workplace productivity, and reciprocally benefit individuals. Therefore, it is imperative for organisations to actively promote experiences that improve the growth and development of their employees, as this can be done by enhancing job design to include elements such as autonomy, variety, significance, feedback, and social contacts, along with providing training to supervisors to address employee work-family integration issues through social support effectively, can help achieve this goal. Second, management should prioritise establishing and enhancing a work culture that acknowledges and facilitates the balance between work and family demands. This includes implementing flexible scheduling options, acknowledging family-related responsibilities, and promoting an organisational culture that encourages employees to prioritise family needs without fear of negative career repercussions. This is because such measures support employees’ well-being and contribute to a more engaged one. Third, our paper highlights the importance of adopting gender-sensitive approaches when implementing work-family policies. Given this recognition that women may experience greater benefits from such support due to societal expectations and traditional gender roles, organisations should ensure that their policies are inclusive and sensitive to these dynamics. This may involve tailored support mechanisms for women or programs that specifically address the challenges faced by women in balancing work and family responsibilities.
Limitations and recommendations for future studies
Despite this study’s promising findings, it has limitations. Given this context, further studies can be conducted to elucidate the fundamental mechanisms behind these effects through the utilisation of qualitative research methods or a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches. Furthermore, the cross-sectional design restricts the ability to establish causality between work-family culture, work-family enrichment, and gender differences. Future studies should consider using longitudinal designs to understand causal relationships over time better. Additionally, the study’s sample characteristics may not fully represent the workforce’s diversity, limiting the findings’ generalisability. Future studies can address this shortfall by including larger and more diverse samples to enhance the results’ applicability to various organisational contexts.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study sheds light on the complex interplay between work-family culture, work-family enrichment, and the moderating role of gender. Our results demonstrate that the dimensions of work-family culture positively and negatively relate to work-family enrichment. Given this, organisations that prioritise work-family balance and implement family-friendly policies, flexible work arrangements, and practices create an environment that promotes employees’ well-being and satisfaction. Employees are better equipped to manage their work and family responsibilities by providing the necessary resources and support, leading to a positive spillover effect between work and family domains. Moreover, the study highlighted the importance of considering gender differences in work-family dynamics. Women, in particular, may experience a more substantial impact of both positive and negative work-family culture on their enrichment due to societal expectations and gender roles. Recognising and addressing these gender-specific challenges is crucial in designing inclusive policies and initiatives that support all employees in achieving work-family balance.
Figures
Figure 1
Conceptual framework
Figure 2
Interactional effect of gender in the relationship between management support and work-family enrichment
Figure 3
Interactional effect of gender in the relationship between negative career consequences and work-family enrichment
Figure 4
Interactional effect of gender in the relationship between organisational time demand and work-family enrichment
Demographic information of respondents
| Frequency | Percentage | |
|---|---|---|
| Gender | ||
| Male | 173 | 58.45 |
| Female | 123 | 41.55 |
| Age | ||
| Below 30 years | 162 | 54.73 |
| 31–40 years | 84 | 28.39 |
| 41–50 years | 24 | 8.11 |
| 51–60 years | 26 | 8.77 |
| Marital status | ||
| Single | 224 | 75.68 |
| Married | 72 | 24.32 |
T-test for work-family enrichment based on demographic factors
| N | Mean | SD | t | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 173 | 5.6859 | 1.00247 | 0.175 |
| Female | 123 | 5.6649 | 1.05332 | |
| Marital status | ||||
| Married | 224 | 5.7485 | 0.97953 | 2.457* |
| Single | 72 | 5.6543 | 1.03662 | |
Descriptive statistics, reliability and bivariate correlations
| Mean | SD | SK | KUR | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Gender | – | – | – | – | – | ||||||
| 2 | Age | 30.11 | 8.62 | – | – | 0.281** | – | |||||
| 3 | Marital Status | – | – | – | – | 0.097 | 0.274** | – | ||||
| 4 | Management support | 3.739 | 0.943 | 0.312 | −1.162 | 0.028 | 0.000 | 0.015 | (0.769) | |||
| 5 | Negative career consequences | 4.212 | 1.679 | −0.736 | −0.595 | −0.004 | −0.005 | 0.037 | 0.418** | (0.869) | ||
| 6 | Organisational time demand | 4.891 | 1.554 | −0.927 | −0.201 | −0.032 | −0.008 | 0.024 | 0.006 | 0.033 | (0.779) | |
| 7 | Work-family enrichment | 5.687 | 1.019 | −0.674 | −0.632 | −0.010 | −0.065 | 0.040 | 0.216** | −0.554** | −0.486** | (0.890) |
Note(s): **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
The moderating effect of gender in the relationship between management support and work-family enrichment
| B | Boot SE | T | LLCI | ULCI | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Constant | 0.07 | 1.20 | 0.06 | −2.29 | 2.43 |
| Management support | 0.38 | 0.35 | 3.93 | 0.69 | 2.08 |
| Gender | 0.02 | 0.24 | 4.28 | 0.55 | 1.49 |
| Int_1 | 0.24 | 0.07 | 3.62 | 0.37 | 0.11 |
| R2 = 0.11 | F = 13.08 |
The moderating effect of gender in the relationship between negative career consequences and work-family enrichment
| B | Boot SE | T | LLCI | ULCI | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Constant | −8.93 | 1.41 | −6.35 | −11.70 | −6.17 |
| Negative career consequences | 0.51 | 0.26 | 9.61 | 1.99 | 3.02 |
| Gender | 0.68 | 0.26 | 10.33 | 2.17 | 3.19 |
| Int_1 | −0.45 | 0.05 | −9.34 | 0.54 | 0.35 |
| R2 = 0.27 | F = 40.82 |
The moderating effect of gender in the relationship between organisational time demand and work-family enrichment
| B | Boot SE | T | LLCI | ULCI | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Constant | −7.32 | 2.00 | −3.65 | −11.26 | −3.38 |
| Organisational time demand | 2.12 | 0.36 | 5.90 | 1.42 | 2.83 |
| Gender | 2.40 | 0.37 | 6.47 | 1.67 | 3.13 |
| Int_1 | −0.39 | 0.07 | −5.79 | 0.52 | 0.26 |
| R2 = 0.1512 | F = 19.7205 |
References
Aboobaker, N., & Edward, M. (2020). Collective influence of work–family conflict and work–family enrichment on turnover intention: Exploring the moderating effects of individual differences. Global Business Review, 21(5), 1218–1231. doi: 10.1177/0972150919857015.
Agrawal, M., & Mahajan, R. (2021). Work–family enrichment: An integrative review. International Journal of Workplace Health Management, 14(2), 217–241. doi: 10.1108/ijwhm-04-2020-0056.
Akanji, B., Mordi, C., & Ajonbadi, H. A. (2020). The experiences of work-life balance, stress, and coping lifestyles of female professionals: Insights from a developing country. Employee Relations: The International Journal, 42(4), 999–1015. doi: 10.1108/er-01-2019-0089.
Ametorwo, A. M., Ofori, D., Annor, F., & Dartey-Baah, K. (2021). Work-family conflict as antecedent to workplace deviance: A study among bankers. African Journal of Management Research, 28(1), 90–104. doi: 10.4314/ajmr.v28i1.7.
Aryee, S., Srinivas, E. S., & Tan, H. H. (2005). Rhythms of life: Antecedents and outcomes of work-family balance in employed parents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(1), 132–146. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.1.132.
Awan, K., Ahmad, N., Naveed, R. T., Scholz, M., Adnan, M., & Han, H. (2021). The impact of work–family enrichment on subjective career success through job engagement: A case of banking sector. Sustainability, 13(16), 8872. doi: 10.3390/su13168872.
Bansal, N., & Agarwal, U. A. (2020). Direct and indirect effects of work‒family enrichment: Role of gender role ideology. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 69(5), 873–894. doi: 10.1108/ijppm-10-2018-0370.
Baral, R., & Bhargava, S. (2011). Predictors of work‐family enrichment: Moderating effect of core self‐evaluations. Journal of Indian Business Research, 3(4), 220–243. doi: 10.1108/17554191111180573.
Barglowski, K. (2023). Transnational parenting in settled families: Social class, migration experiences and child rearing among Polish migrants in Germany. Journal of Family Studies, 29(2), 893–910. doi: 10.1080/13229400.2021.2007786.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22(6), 723–742. doi: 10.1037//0012-1649.22.6.723.. doi
Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., Wayne, J. H., & Grzywacz, J. G. (2006). Measuring the positive side of the work–family interface: Development and validation of a work–family enrichment scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(1), 131–164. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2005.02.002.
Chambel, M. J., Castanheira, F., & Santos, A. (2023). Teleworking in times of COVID-19: The role of family-supportive supervisor behaviors in workers’ work-family management, exhaustion, and work engagement. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 34(15), 2924–2959. doi: 10.1080/09585192.2022.2063064.
Chen, W., Zhang, Y., Sanders, K., & Xu, S. (2018). Family-friendly work practices and their outcomes in China: The mediating role of work-to-family enrichment and the moderating role of gender. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 29(7), 1307–1329. doi: 10.1080/09585192.2016.1195424.
Constantino, S. M., Schlüter, M., Weber, E. U., & Wijermans, N. (2021). Cognition and behavior in context: A framework and theories to explain natural resource use decisions in social-ecological systems. Sustainability Science, 16(5), 1651–1671. doi:10.1007/s11625-021-00989-w.
Crain, T. L., & Stevens, S. C. (2018). Family‐supportive supervisor behaviors: A review and recommendations for research and practice. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(7), 869–888. doi: 10.1002/job.2320.
De Gieter, S., De Cooman, R., Bogaerts, Y., & Verelst, L. (2022). Explaining the effect of work–nonwork boundary management fit on satisfaction and performance at home through reduced time‐and strain‐based work–family conflict. Applied Psychology, 71(1), 129–153. doi: 10.1111/apps.12314.
De Janasz, S., Behson, S. J., Jonsen, K., & Lankau, M. J. (2013). Dual sources of support for dual roles: How mentoring and work–family culture influence work–family conflict and job attitudes. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(7), 1435–1453. doi: 10.1080/09585192.2012.709187.
Dery, D. A., Cuthbert, B. K., Nakojah, M. M., & Segbefia, S. K. (2022). Patriarchy and womanhood: The case of the Konkomba woman of the Nanumba North mucipality in the Northern region of Ghana. African Journal of Emerging Issues, 4(13), 91–110.
Duxbury, L., Bardoel, A., & Halinski, M. (2021). ‘Bringing the badge home’: Exploring the relationship between role overload, work-family conflict, and stress in police officers. Policing and Society, 31(8), 997–1016. doi: 10.1080/10439463.2020.1822837.
Ekmekci, O. T., Metin Camgoz, S., & Bayhan Karapinar, P. (2021). Path to well-being: Moderated mediation model of perfectionism, family–work conflict, and gender. Journal of Family Issues, 42(8), 1852–1879. doi: 10.1177/0192513x20957041.
Elbaz, A. M., Salem, I., Elsetouhi, A., & Abdelhamied, H. H. (2020). The moderating role of leisure participation in work–leisure conflict for the reduction of burnout in hotels and travel agencies. International Journal of Tourism Research, 22(3), 375–389. doi: 10.1002/jtr.2342.
Gerson, K. (2009). The unfinished revolution: How a new generation is reshaping family, work, and gender in America: How a new generation is reshaping family, work, and gender in America. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gordon, J. R., Whelan-Berry, K. S., & Hamilton, E. A. (2007). The relationship among work-family conflict and enhancement, organizational work-family culture, and work outcomes for older working women. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(4), 350–364. doi: 10.1037/1076-8998.12.4.350.
Gorgievski, M. J., Halbesleben, J. R., & Bakker, A. B. (2011). Expanding the boundaries of psychological resource theories. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84(1), 1–7. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.2010.02015.x.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2006). When work and family are allies: A theory of work- family enrichment. Academy of Management Review, 31(1), 72–92. doi: 10.5465/amr.2006.19379625.
Grzywacz, J. G., & Marks, N. F. (2000). Reconceptualizing the work–family interface: An ecological perspective on the correlates of positive and negative spillover between work and family. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 111–126. doi: 10.1037//1076-8998.5.1.111.
Halbesleben, J. R., & Buckley, M. R. (2004). Burnout in organizational life. Journal of Management, 30(6), 859–879. doi:10.1016/j.jm.2004.06.004.
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.44.3.513.. doi
Hofstede, G. (2016). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Collegiate Aviation Review, 34(2), 108.
Kalliath, P., Kalliath, T., Chan, X. W., & Chan, C. (2020). Enhancing job satisfaction through work–family enrichment and perceived supervisor support: The case of Australian social workers. Personnel Review, 49(9), 2055–2072. doi: 10.1108/pr-06-2018-0219.
Kaplan, H. S., & Gangestad, S. W. (2005). Life history theory and evolutionary psychology. In Buss, D. M. (Ed.), The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology (pp. 68–95). Hoboken, NewYork: John Wiley & Sons.
Koole, S. L., Schlinkert, C., Maldei, T., & Baumann, N. (2019). Becoming who you are: An integrative review of self‐determination theory and personality systems interactions theory. Journal of Personality, 87(1), 15–36. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12380.
Kossek, E. E., Perrigino, M., & Rock, A. G. (2021). From ideal workers to ideal work for all: A 50-year review integrating careers and work-family research with a future research agenda. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 126, 103504. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103504.
Lapierre, L. M., Li, Y., Kwan, H. K., Greenhaus, J. H., DiRenzo, M. S., & Shao, P. (2018). A meta‐analysis of the antecedents of work–family enrichment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(4), 385–401. doi: 10.1002/job.2234.
Liu, T., Wei, C., & Lee, Y. M. (2022). A systematic review of work–family enrichment in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 34(8), 2884–2913. doi: 10.1108/ijchm-11-2021-1332.
Lo Presti, A., & Mauno, S. (2016). Are support and control beneficial stress buffers in the presence of work–family barriers? Findings from Italy. International Journal of Stress Management, 23(1), 44–64. doi: 10.1037/a0038440.
Martinez-Sanchez, A., Perez-Perez, M., Vela-Jimenez, M. J., & Abella-Garces, S. (2018). Job satisfaction and work–family policies through work-family enrichment. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 33(4/5), 386–402. doi: 10.1108/jmp-10-2017-0376.
McCoy, D. C. (2022). Building a model of cultural universality with specificity for global early childhood development. Child Development Perspectives, 16(1), 27–33. doi: 10.1111/cdep.12438.
Miller, R. L., & Brewer, J. D. (Eds). (2003). The AZ of social research: A dictionary of key social science research concepts. London: Sage.
McNall, L. A., Nicklin, J. M., & Masuda, A. D. (2010). A meta-analytic review of the consequences associated with work–family enrichment. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25, 381–396. doi:10.1007/s10869-009-9141-1.
Miller, K. E., & Riley, J. (2022). Changed landscape, unchanged norms: Work-family conflict and the persistence of the academic mother ideal. Innovative Higher Education, 47(3), 1–22. doi: 10.1007/s10755-021-09586-2.
Mishra, P., & Bhatnagar, J. (2019). Individual, organizational and social level antecedents of work-family enrichment: Does gender acts as a moderator?. Journal of Asia Business Studies, 13(1), 108–132. doi: 10.1108/jabs-10-2017-0186.
Neubert, M. J., & Taggar, S. (2004). Pathways to informal leadership: The moderating role of gender on the relationship of individual differences and team member network centrality to informal leadership emergence. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(2), 175–194. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.02.006.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 539–569. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100452.
Rawal, D. M. (2023). Work life balance among female school teachers [k-12] delivering online curriculum in Noida [India] during COVID: Empirical study. Management in Education, 37(1), 37–45. doi: 10.1177/0892020621994303.
Russo, M., & Morandin, G. (2023). A network approach to work-family conflict. Human Resource Management Review, 33(2), 100943. doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2022.100943.
Settersten, R. A., Jr, Bernardi, L., Härkönen, J., Antonucci, T. C., Dykstra, P. A., Heckhausen, J., … Thomson, E. (2020). Understanding the effects of Covid-19 through a life course lens. Advances in Life Course Research, 45, 100360. doi: 10.1016/j.alcr.2020.100360.
Siu, O. L., Lu, J. F., Brough, P., Lu, C. Q., Bakker, A. B., Kalliath, T., … Shi, K. (2010). Role resources and work–family enrichment: The role of work engagement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77(3), 470–480. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2010.06.007.
Straub, C., Beham, B., Fayad, M., & Ramadan, N. (2023). Managing work and nonwork responsibilities when labour protection is weak: The role of family supportive supervisor behaviours. Applied Psychology, 72(4), 1528–1551. doi: 10.1111/apps.12455.
Ten Brummelhuis, L. L., & Bakker, A. B. (2012). A resource perspective on the work–home interface: The work–home resources model. American Psychologist, 67(7).
Thompson, C. A., Beauvais, L. L., & Lyness, K. S. (1999). When work–family benefits are not enough: The influence of work–family culture on benefit utilization, organizational attachment, and work–family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54(3), 392–415. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1998.1681.
Tran, H. P. (2019). How authentic leadership promotes individual knowledge sharing: Viewing from the lens of COR theory. Management & Marketing, 14(4), 386–401. doi:10.2478/mmcks-2019-0027.
Van den Eynde, A., & Mortelmans, D. (2020). The consequences of work–family enrichment in families on the behaviour of children. Social Sciences, 9(10), 180. doi: 10.3390/socsci9100180.
Van der Lippe, T., & Lippényi, Z. (2020). Beyond formal access: Organizational context, working from home, and work–family conflict of men and women in European workplaces. Social Indicators Research, 151(2), 383–402. doi: 10.1007/s11205-018-1993-1.
Zolnikov, T. R. (2020). Effects of the government’s ban in Ghana on women in artisanal and small-scale gold mining. Resources Policy, 65, 101561. doi: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101561.