Prelims

Half Title Page

Economy, Gender and Academy

Title Page

Economy, Gender and Academy: A Pending Conversation

Edited by

Mario Enrique Vargas Sáenz

Eafit University, Colombia

Laura Andrea Cristancho Giraldo

Institución Universitaria Politécnico Grancolombiano, Colombia

Marisol Salamanca Olmos

Institución Universitaria Politécnico Grancolombiano, Colombia

And

Gloria Nancy Rios Yepes

Institución Universitaria Politécnico Grancolombiano, Colombia

United Kingdom – North America – Japan – India – Malaysia – China

Copyright Page

Emerald Publishing Limited

Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2023

Editorial matter and selection © 2023 Mario Enrique Vargas Sáenz, Laura Andrea Cristancho Giraldo, Marisol Salamanca Olmos and Gloria Nancy Rios Yepes.

Individual chapters © 2023 the respective author/s.

Published under exclusive licence by Emerald Publishing Limited.

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-80455-999-4 (Print)

ISBN: 978-1-80455-998-7 (Online)

ISBN: 978-1-83753-000-7 (Epub)

Dedication Page

This book is dedicated to all women who play different roles, from academia, research, science, housewives, professionals, entrepreneurs and in the workplace, who every day seek for their work to be visible and recognized, in order to achieve better opportunities, greater equity and general well-being. We hope this is a call to all stakeholders to continue promoting the development of policies and guidelines that can make it possible to achieve these initiatives to achieve more just and egalitarian societies.

Contents

List of Figures and Tables

Figures

Tables

List of Abbreviations

About the Authors

Marcela Mandiola Cotroneo She holds a degree in Psychology from Diego Portales University Chile, also M.A. and Ph.D. in Management Learning from Lancaster University England. She is part of HechoenGénero collective devoted to research, teaching and consulting in critical gender studies on education and organizations. Currently she leads the Critical Management & Organizational Thought Area at 17, Instituto de Estudios Críticos México. She is also Associate Researcher of the Program of Studies in Gender and Sexual Diversity, GEDIS Universidad Alberto Hurtado, Chile. Her research interests articulate Gender and Organizational Studies from a critical and decolonial understanding. She actively participates in academic networks, the MINGA Chile Organizational Studies Network, the Latin American Organizational Studies Network, Reol and Decolonial Alliance.

Nolbis Espinosa Cruz holds a degree in English as a Foreign Language Education from the José de la Luz y Caballero Holguín Pedagogical Sciences University in Cuba. Currently, he is a Teacher at the International St. George’s College and a Collaborator with the International School Partnership (ISP). He is a Specialist in Educational Psychology with a focus on special educational needs and a Specialist in Project-Based Learning. He has participated in research on learning, resulting in publications in journals such as Antesala, Peru, and contributions to books.

Olga Adriana Domínguez is President of the Civil Educational Association for Inclusive Management. She obtained bachelor’s degree in Educational Technologies; Specialist in Management and Administration in Educational Centers; and Specialist in Editorial Design for the Development of Didactic Materials.

Aleosha Eridani He holds a degree in Psychology and a M.A. in Philosophy from Catholic University of Valparaíso, Chile, and a Doctorate (c) in Interdisciplinary Studies on Thought, Culture and Society from University of Valparaíso, Chile. He is part of HechoenGénero, collective devoted to research, teaching and consulting in critical gender studies on education and organizations. Also, he facilitates socio-educational workshops from a gender perspective, around issues such as gender, men and masculinities; and he works with the theatre of the oppressed, performing in forum-theatre plays in various social and educational contexts.

Laura Andrea Cristancho Giraldo is an Economist from the Pontifical Javeriana University, Colombia. He has a Master’s degree in Economics and a PhD in Analysis of Social Problems from UNED in Madrid, Spain. She is currently a University Professor at the Business, Management and Sustainability School of the Grancolombiano Polytechnic in Bogotá, where she is currently the Coordinator of the Economics Program. Her research interests include gender policies, the care economy, the labor market, and working conditions in decent work conditions. She has experience in the public sector in entities such as the National Administrative Department of Statistics of Colombia DANE and the Secretary of Education in the city of Bogotá. He has published/edited five books, participated in some book chapters, and has published articles in refereed journals.

Nicola Rios González (he/him) is a gender and sexuality studies scholar from Chile. He holds a Doctorate (c) in Education and Society from University of Barcelona, an M.A. in Educational Research from the same University, and a degree in Psychology from Catholic University of Valparaíso (Chile). Since 2010 he has worked as an advocate for critical sex education and erotic justice for several institutions and organizations. He is part of HechoenGénero, a collective devoted to research, teaching and consulting in critical gender studies on education and organizations. As an activist and promiscuous researcher, his areas of interest includes gender and sexuality education, cultural pedagogies, higher education, and critical sexuality studies.

Magdaloys Peña Gutiérrez obtained Bachelor’s degree in Sociology. Currently serving as a UN Volunteer at IOM Peru with experience in humanitarian work, particularly with refugees and migrants. In the past five years, focused on the study and work of the Venezuelan migrant population in Peru. He is the Founder of the “Se hace camino al Andar” Association in Lima, Peru. Has been published in national and international journals.

Marybexy Calcerrada Gutiérrez is a Professor at the Center for Cultural and Identity Studies at the University of Holguín and holds a degree in Psychology, a Master’s degree in Gender Studies, and a PhD in Philosophy. She has been involved in research that studies the composition of higher education in Cuba from an intersectional perspective. She is a Social Sciences Advisor in her area and for the government in the area of social care. She is the Coordinator of the Cuba Team in the Second and Third Campaign against Racism in Higher Education in Latin America at the UNESCO Chair on Higher Education and Indigenous and Afro-Descendant Peoples in Latin America at the National University of Tres de Febrero. She has participated in and directed psychosocial and cultural projects, which have led to publications in international journals and book chapters in national and international publishers.

José Baltazar García Horta has a first degree in Psychology from the National Autonomous University (UNAM), Mexico. He has a Master’s degree in International Education Management (MEd) and a PhD in Education, both from the University of Leeds, UK. He is currently a University Professor at the Faculty of Social Work and Human Development, Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon (Mex). His research interests have to do with educational policies, implementation of governmental initiatives, teachers’ working conditions, gender, and equity in education. He is a Member of the National System of Researchers Level 1. He has carried out an Academic Visit to the University of Salamanca in Spain and has been a Visiting Scholar at the University of British Columbia in Canada. He has graduated students from master’s programs as well as PhD students. He has published/edited five books, has participated in some book chapters, and has published articles in peer-reviewed journals.

Rafael Lorenzo Martín is a Teacher–Researcher with a Bachelor’s degree in Education, specializing in Mathematics-Computing (1997), a Diploma in Science Didactics (2001), a PhD in Pedagogical Sciences (2009), a postdoctoral in Education Sciences (2010), and a Full Professor of Higher Education in the Republic of Cuba (2012). He is an Arbitrator for various scientific journals in Colombia and Argentina. He is a Member of the Consulting Staff of the GT-CLACSO: Territories, Spiritualities, and Bodies, based at the Doctorate in Social Studies at the Francisco José de Caldas University District of Colombia (www.udistrital.edu.co). He is a Member of the Latin American and Caribbean Teacher Network RedDOLAC. He is also a Member of projects at the UNESCO Chair on Higher Education and Indigenous and Afro-Descendant Peoples in Latin America at the National University of Tres de Febrero (UNTREF-Argentina https://www.untref.edu.ar/). He is the Vice President of the Inclusive Educational Management Civil Association based in San Luis-Argentina (https://acegi.guiadidactica.net/) and a Member of the Sustainable Educational Civil Association based in San Luis-Argentina.

Diana Mercedes Valdés Mosquera is Professional in International Business, Specialist in Virtual Tools for Education, Master in Public Administration Management, Master in Business Administration (MBA), Master in Commercial and Marketing Management, and Research Professor at the School of Business and International Development of the Politécnico Grancolombiano focused on the study of Business Internationalization.

Marisol Salamanca Olmos obtained Master in Business Management and Administration from UNIR Spain. She is Specialist in Financial Management and Administration from Universidad Piloto de Colombia, Economist from Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, and Professor at the Faculty of Business, Management and Sustainability, Institución Universitaria Politécnico Grancolombiano. Her research interests include gender and labor market policies.

Daniela Rivera Ortega obtained Master’s student in Interdisciplinary Social Research at the Francisco José de Caldas District University and Professional in Business and International Relations at La Salle University. She worked as a Teacher at the San José Higher Education Foundation and as an Academic Assistant at Semillero In-Vestigium. She is currently a Researcher in the Representation, Discourse and Power research group at the Francisco José de Caldas District University.

María Teresa Guerra Ramos is a researcher in Science Education at Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, Unidad Monterrey, México (CINVESTAV). She studied Psychology at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), an MEd in Science Education and a PhD at the University of Leeds, UK. She worked at the Ministry of Education in Mexico for several years and was involved in the elaboration and classroom trials of textbooks and teacher manuals for primary science education. Her research interests are focused on teachers’ representations of scientists and scientific activity, the development of science teaching competencies, features of discourse in science teaching–learning interactions and collaboration among teachers and researchers for pedagogical innovation. She is a Member of the National System of Researchers Level 1. She is currently a Visiting Scholar at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.

July Alexandra Villalba Rodriguez is Professional in International Business, Master in Innovation Management, and PhD student in Complex Thinking. She is a Director and Researcher of the Finance and International Business program at the Fundación Universitaria del Area Andina, and also a Business Consultant focused on promoting the development of agricultural productive projects.

Mario Enrique Vargas Saénz is Philosopher and Industrial Relations Specialist. He obtained Master in Administration from EAFIT University; Advanced the International Senior Management program with the Universities EAFIT – ESADE –ICESI; and Doctor in Philosophy – Magna cum laude – from the UPS of Rome. He is Director of EAFIT University for more than 14 years. Currently in charge of EAFIT Social and is also in charge of the GUIE, Research Group on Innovation and Entrepreneurship. He also Coordinates the Master in Management of Social Enterprises for Social Innovation and Local Development. With more than 25 years of experience in university teaching at national and international level, he has been a Consultant to companies and has provided his services to international organizations such as UN Habitat and the OECD.

Alejandra Elizabeth Urbiola Solís is Researcher specialized in Economic Anthropology, Gender Studies and Migrations. Member of the Autonomous University of Querétaro since August 2007, Faculty of Accounting and Administration as a Professor–Researcher. She is a Member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) Level 1. Her professional objective with the institution of membership is to collaborate as a professor–researcher in the areas of education, research, tutoring, and community outreach.

Jaime Andrés Wilches Tinjacá is Doctor Cum Laude in Communication from the Pompeu Fabra University of Barcelona, Master’s in Political Studies from the National University of Colombia, Social Communicator and Journalist from the Central University. Political Scientist Degree of Honor from the National University of Colombia. Research Coordinator and Professor of the Faculty of Business, Management and Sustainability, Institución Universitaria Politécnico Grancolombiano, and Professor of the Master’s Degree in Interdisciplinary Social Research at the Francisco José de Caldas District University, Colciencias Junior Researcher.

Laura Velez, Human Rights Campaign Awardee, obtained degree in Communication Sciences specialized in audiovisual production and PhD in Political and Social Sciences. She is Deputy Director of Interinstitutional Liaison in the Ministry of Culture of Mexico, Funds raiser, and currently Research Coordinator in temporary exhibitions of the Museum Memory and Tolerance.

Gloria Nancy Ríos Yepes, Economist from the University of Manizales, Colombia and Management Specialist, obtained Master in Human Resources Management. She is Professor of Economics Program, School of Business and International Development, Gran Colombian Polytechnic, Medellin Colombia. Her research interests include gender equity issues and alternatives to combat poverty within the framework of the Sustainable Development Goals.

Foreword

Presentation

Our organizations, reproducers of a normalized inequity

Angel Wilhelm Vázquez García

Economic Production Department,

Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Xochimilco

Ciudad de México, México

Money, its a crime. share it fairly but dont take,

a slice of my pie. Money, so they say,

is the root of all evil today.

but if you ask for a raise its no surprise

that they are giving none away”

Money, Roger Waters

Understanding the behavior of modern organizations from the perspective of gender and economics acquires different nuances depending on their geospatial location. This is due to the importance of the place where its members travel. Traditional definitions of the concept of organization conceive it as a collectivity with relatively identifiable boundaries (Hall, 1996). Contemporary meanings emphasize that this collectivity does not exist as an abstraction; the collective action manifested within it is oriented by its gender composition, that is, modern organizations are composed of men and women, bearers of customs, learned interactions reproducing ways of seeing the world (Montaño, 2020).

In the 1960s, organizations in industrialized countries were reluctant to recognize the contribution of women. Discussions focused on the predominance of men in the development of strategic tasks. This implied that the management of organizations implicitly carries a patriarchal vision. Burin (2009) indicates that the gender mandate that points to the male as the possessor of economic rationality is perpetuated, attributing to him an untouchable strategic capacity. Women, on the other hand, are associated with remaining isolated in decisions involving public space. This mandate promotes a society based on levers that inhibit the possibilities of building equitable and inclusive organizations. In terms of the contributions of men and women, there is a latent questioning of universalist and naturalistic biases that point to the white, heterosexual male with an aggressive attitude as the profile best suited to hold power (Acker, 1998). On this basis, a web of meanings and conditioning practices is woven to develop an economic activity anchored in business organizations.

Therefore, the transformation of women’s economic role is associated with the functioning of the capitalist economic system, which places them in the background. At the world level, the Great Depression of 1929 exposed the male predominance in decision-making in large corporations. The strategic leadership was occupied by men. Decades later, there were other challenging moments that challenged the functioning of financial systems in different latitudes. Capital, as its engine, does not contemplate women in this game. Various restrictions have been eased as a result of different social movements. The struggles of the first feminists who demanded, through collective resistance, legislative reforms to recognize women as an important part of the economic engine of Western society.

It is enough to go back to the nineteenth century, with the hard work of women and girls at the height of industrialization. The Scientific Labor Administration laid the ideological foundations, based on the predominance of men, to weave nodes that operate and reproduce labor practices, under the pretext of the efficiency of time and movements dictated by the machine (Billing, 2011). In the development of operational activities, historically there has been an absence of regulations to improve their precarious conditions. Undoubtedly, the perception of the contribution that exists between men and women in an organization crosses the patriarchal paradigmatic model. The organization affects the appropriation of masculinized conventions and routines, developed from susceptible practices where violence against women is made invisible and normalized (Alvesson & Due, 2009).

In modern organizations, those who are not within the masculinized control of rational economic logic are considered vulnerable groups. In other words, women, Indigenous women, and members of LGBTQ groups are excluded (Alvesson & Due, 2009; Billing, 2011). As an example, an Indigenous lesbian woman, originally from a rural community, with barriers to accessing middle and higher levels of education will have more difficulties in achieving social mobility. In countries such as Mexico and Colombia, with great economic instability, insecurity, and vulnerability to guarantee the recognition of labor and human rights, the basis for strengthening structural violence that does not contribute to equity in every sense is laid.

By combining gendered economic perspectives, they contribute to the dimension of labor precariousness. Yancey (2003) and Acker (2004, 2006) point out that women’s participation in the workplace presents different disadvantages. The first is the possibility of accessing, developing, and ascending to higher hierarchical levels. If other variables, such as ethnicity, are crossed, more inequalities appear that are linked to their access to health services, education, housing, and decent food. The notion of economic independence, to generate autonomy in the maintenance of women, is crossed by different conditioning factors. In the words of Acker (2012), each one is a product of the combination of representations associated with the region where the organization is located. This directly generates a gender structure designed to establish both explicit and implicit rules for behavior at work.

In Latin American countries, the arrival of industrialization was late, due to the colonization processes. Processes of resistance to Eurocentric capitalist visions were favored, patriarchal domination has a face of individualism, maximization of resources tinged by machismo (Acker, 2004). The distribution of tasks within our organizations also reproduces internal household dynamics. Women’s work outside formalized spaces is often devalued. Unpaid activities, including health care for members, are part of the increased domestic burden that goes unrecognized.

Women’s work in organizations tends to omit its importance, which Alvesson and Due (2009) agree in calling gender blindness. In other words, it would seem that organizations are places free of any inequity generated by the gender dimension. This bias has an affective and symbolic charge, which gives it a series of experiences and aspirations that exclude and inhibit feminization to exalt its opposite. This blindness leaves its blindfold when crises make visible the hidden inequalities between men and women. For example, this book in front of you develops an interesting reflection on the economic crisis derived from COVID-19 confinement. How a health crisis placed marginalized women who did not have sufficient economic resources to cope with it in greater vulnerability. In this regard, the female presence in Hispanic American organizations, as already mentioned, is associated with a pattern oriented by a labor market that punishes them for their age, roles of care in the home, and the imposition of beauty stereotypes. A pattern that fades when the concept of professional success exalts the male more than the female. Female achievement is a line of analysis addressed in this book under the pretext of opening up possibilities to explain the gender gap. Consequently, economic growth is not only found in statistical coldness and indicators.

There are different cultural and institutional barriers that conceal a parallel structure that limits employment opportunities. From this perspective, patriarchy imposes different devices that differentiate who has access to better-paying jobs (Goldin & Sokoloff, 1982). According to Yancey (2003), women are historically exposed to greater economic vulnerability reflected in salary differences. In business organizations in our region, there are wage gaps in economic activities associated with the tertiary sector and senior management.

In this regard, academic research (Acker, 1998; Billing, 2011) attributes the lack of representation of women at higher hierarchical levels to the persistence of stereotypes based on the legitimacy of a violent social order, where the white heterosexual male stands out in a logic of “rational” knowledge production. This is due to the persistence of stereotypes based on the legitimacy of a violent social order, where the white heterosexual male stands out in a logic of “rational” knowledge production. In this regard, Burin (2009) recalls the existence of a glass ceiling, to refer to the invisible and discriminatory barriers to climbing to certain positions that raise gender-based stereotypes.

With the above, the authors of this book Economics, Gender, and Academia: A Pending Conversation, combine a collective effort for you, the reader, to broaden your view of our region around economics and gender. The critical and updated perspective, based on academic rigor, characterizes each of the chapters that comprise it. This text is led by the Politécnico Grancolombiano and the Universidad EAFIT and is the result of two international symposiums related to gender equity during the years 2021 and 2022. The topics discussed here are part of a polyphonic conversation that emphasizes inequality between men and women. The gathering of these conversations seeks to ally on the front of the denunciation against violence by giving the floor to those who have not taken it. The university imprint sets the tone for influencing the closing of gender gaps.

Each page of this book challenges the status quo, anchored in an interest in probing beyond the concept of equity. When theory is not removed from day-to-day action, context is relevant. It is possible that there will be those who only see a book integrated with thematic chapters. Just as there will surely be those who discover, in rigorous research and the written word, that no resistance is exhausted, which opens the infinite possibility of imagining a world built on respect for difference. Let us begin the conversation.

Preface

Research on equity and the gender gap has led each of the authors to find different perspectives that are relevant when it comes to identifying the advances that have been made in this matter, and invites reflection from areas such as the economy, the education, culture, organizations, academia, in order to validate and recognize the achievements and existing gaps in terms of gender equality. In this tour it is possible to collect the vision of different Latin American researchers, who present relevant positions and arguments while inviting them to continue reflecting on the importance of continuing the discussion and promotion of gender issues.

With this book, we want to contribute once again that reading on issues of gender equity continues to generate awareness of the importance of strengthening the results achieved for both women and men, recognizing the role played by the people and their willingness to advance in policies that become a mandate. The value of education when training in different knowledge and how from there it must also be promoted for this equality, in addition to exercising a facilitating role, so that it is there where it can advance in policies aimed at reducing gender gaps, including organizations and society in general.

There is a conversation and pending actions, although progress is recognized, the challenges must become a real commitment on the part of society, the gender problem crosses borders and takes on a global character, in this way, it is invited to recognize those elements that have been advancing in the region and continue with their reflection and actions that in compliance with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can increase the opportunities for equity, freedom, and dignity, for men and women on equal terms.

This tour begins with an analysis that is presented from Mexico in relation to the contents of gender equity in texts and official educational documents in Mexico, with the idea of being able to identify if they are promoting equity, or maintaining stereotypes, superiority, and authority.

It is evident the inequality of rights, wage gaps, and gender stereotypes, it is the context in which women live in Latin America, which aggravates their situation of poverty. Under this scenario, a reflection is presented in relation to how drug trafficking is presented as a legitimate job offer and a response to the economic needs of women.

The analysis continues, in the post-pandemic context in the education sector, referring to Cuba, Peru, and Argentina, particularly in education, which is conceived as a platform for social integration in the workplace, the authors then raise from their experience and the vision of sources, the proposal of political theoretical criteria that facilitate inclusive public policies in the field of education and the productive sector that lead to overcoming gender and racial gaps in the post-pandemic context.

In this context, an analysis is presented between academia, organization, and gender in Chile, the authors make an analysis based on gender and organizational studies, which leads them to find that the practice of management in institutions acquires a central and hegemonic status.

The study of the gender perspective must be done from the pillars of human rights, which when considered universal do not suggest political ideologies, cultural differences, and economic systems, in this context the authors present a reflection on gender policies in Latin America for the case of the Andean Community of Nations CAN (Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador).

From the practice in organizations, an analysis is presented regarding the alternatives of change that they must have in the light of a gender perspective, the author presents macroeconomic indicators of development and gender gap, where she shows their relationship and multiple variables, which lead to propose and recognize conditions around what should be the intervention within organizations.

Finally, it considers what are the difficulties and challenges that a woman in Mexico must face to generate a company in the education sector, and what COVID-19 meant, exploring the different strategies that guaranteed her to maintain the organization, which can be an example of all those women in Latin America who wish to undertake.

The importance of progressing in the dialogues between academia and economics on gender gaps in organizations is reviewed, identifying the advances that have been made in this area in Latin America, with emphasis on the Colombian case, evidencing the challenges that persist in accordance with the provisions of the Sustainable Development Agenda and the role played in this scenario by the Institutions of Higher Education the progress achieved and the challenges that are proposed.

There is a lack of conversation about economics and gender because the analysis is from a macroeconomic perspective by writing that, regardless of who does the care work or domestic work, one can also question the assumptions of economic science that, by convention, in national accounts ignores the value of domestic work and almost deals with scarcity, selfishness and competition and rarely abundance, altruism, and cooperation.

The text presented is a compendium of experiences and a tour of Latin America, so that it interpels, motivates, and invites to continue working to achieve true inclusion and gender equity, its reading will lead to enrich the discussion and to continue developing spaces, which allow advancing and answer the following questions:

• What are the challenges and opportunities in gender equity presented by economic analyses in Colombia in a Latin American context?

• Why, despite the fact that most large companies and organizations have protocols and complaint management instances to address gender-based violence, in many cases asymmetrical relationships persist and structural changes are not observed in most of them?

• Can environmental culture determine resistance to change within organizations, or are new processes part of an isomorphic organizational response to environmental pressures?

To answer these questions, it is shown that there is still a pending conversation between academia, organizations, and actors that make change possible, the distinctive features of the book are themes that encompass critical pedagogy, gender equality and equity, gender stereotypes, equality in education, capital, public policies, racism, organization, management, masculinity, hegemony, human rights, social relations, invisible costs, Latin American women leaders, anti-semitism and female performance, Holocaust education, economics, higher education institutions, and leadership, among others, so this conversation has to keep moving forward.

Acknowledgments

Research opens doors and motivates us to continue advancing, for which we are grateful for the support of Grancolombiano Polytechnic and Eafit University and each of the authors who participated in the construction of the book with their contributions, based on their realities and experiences that they gather from their countries of origin. More than thanking, we want to leave open the dialogues and the interest to add new knowledge that is reflected in a more prosperous and equitable society in Latin America and the Caribbean.

With appreciation,

Mario, Laura, Marisol y Gloria Nancy