Prelims

Half Title Page

Generation A

Series Title Page

Emerald Studies in Workplace Neurodiversity

Series Editors: Cristina M. Giannantonio and Amy E. Hurley-Hanson

This important series is designed to make a significant contribution to the development of research on neurodiversity in the workplace. Despite increasing recognition of neurodiversity as a competitive advantage (Austin & Pisano, 2017), little is known about the work experiences and career outcomes of neurodiverse individuals. Neurodiversity is reported to include autism spectrum disorder, dyspraxia, dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dyscalculia, Tourette's syndrome, and other neurological differences. This series will include books, monographs, edited volumes, and practitioner handbooks examining the key individual, organizational, and societal issues surrounding neurodiversity at work, the challenges involved in finding and maintaining employment for neurodiverse individuals, and the need to understand which best practices will lead to positive work, career, and life outcomes for neurodiverse individuals.

The series, Emerald Studies in Workplace Neurodiversity, will synthesize critical thinking around the strategic issues associated with hiring and integrating neurodiverse individuals into the workplace. Titles in the series will provide current research in this area. This series will capture contemporary research and practice from a diverse range of international scholars, practitioners, and educators. The series will help to build connections between research and neurodiversity in the workplace.

The series will also explore the role of organizations, educational institutions, advocacy groups, and the public sector in preparing neurodiverse individuals for employment. It will also explore best practices being utilized in the employment process and how these may be adapted to address future challenges. This is a series that is relevant for both academics and practitioners, as it aims to further the research agenda on the topic and influence the ability of organizations to successfully hire neurodiverse individuals. While little is known about the work experiences and career outcomes of these individuals, the individual, organizational, and societal issues associated with neurodiversity in the workplace underscore the importance of this topic.

More information about this series at: https://books.emeraldinsight.com/page/series-detail/Emerald-Studies-in-Workplace-Neurodiversity/

Title Page

Generation A: Research on Autism in the Workplace

Edited by

Cristina M. Giannantonio

Chapman University, USA

And

Amy E. Hurley-Hanson

Chapman University, USA

United Kingdom – North America – Japan – India – Malaysia – China

Copyright Page

Emerald Publishing Limited

Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2022

Copyright © 2022 by Emerald Publishing Limited

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-80071-257-7 (Print)

ISBN: 978-1-80071-256-0 (Online)

ISBN: 978-1-80071-258-4 (Epub)

Dedication

I never did a day's work in my life, it was all fun.

Thomas Edison

This book is dedicated to Generation A.

May they find work as fulfilling, fascinating, and fun as we have.

About the Authors

Nadia Bhuiyan, PhD, is an Assistant Clinical Professor in the Department of Psychological Sciences at Auburn University. Nadia is the Clinic Director for the Auburn University Psychological Services Center, a training clinic for masters and doctoral level graduate students enrolled in the clinical psychology and behavioral analysis programs. She is a licensed Clinical Psychologist and provides supervised training in the delivery of evidence-based clinical services for individuals across the lifespan. She has extensive experience with the assessment of autism spectrum disorder and related neurodevelopmental disorders. She received her PhD in Clinical and Health Psychology from the University of Florida. After completing an internship in clinical child and pediatric psychology at the University of Florida Health Science Center, she completed a postdoctoral fellowship at the Emory University School of Medicine within the Clinical Assessments and Diagnostics team at Marcus Autism Center and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta.

Melissa J. Bjelland, PhD, is a Research Associate at the Yang-Tan Institute on Employment and Disability at Cornell University ILR School, USA. Dr. Bjelland specializes in the fields of labor economics, health economics, and econometrics with a focus upon advancing knowledge of the educational, employment, and service participation experiences of individuals with disabilities. Using a variety of national survey and administrative datasets, she manages the creation of cross-sectional and longitudinal research files, performs empirical analyses, and authors research papers and policy briefs describing her results.

Susanne M. Bruyère, PhD, is Professor of Disability Studies and Director of the Yang-Tan Institute on Employment and Disability at Cornell University ILR School, USA. Dr. Bruyère serves as the Yang-Tan Institute’s administrative and strategic lead, and as the PI/Co-PI of numerous research, dissemination, and technical assistance efforts focused on employment and disability policy and effective workplace practices for people with disabilities. She is currently the PI and Project Director of the National Policy, Research, and Technical Assistance Center on Employment of People with Disabilities funded by the US Department of Labor Office of Disability Employment Policy. Dr. Bruyère is the author/coauthor of four books and over 120 peer-reviewed articles and book chapters on workplace disability inclusion and related topics.

Tara Cunningham is the Founding CEO of Beyond-Impact, an Ashoka Fellow, and an internationally recognized, award-winning, neurodivergent CEO and Social Entrepreneur and Management Consultant. Her work spans disability inclusion from early intervention to financial inclusion and independence through integrated, paid employment. Over the past 20 years, Tara has been appointed to various nonprofit, SME, and governmental boards, advised nonprofits, corporate social responsibility programs, social enterprises, government agencies, the European Commission, politicians, and philanthropic foundations throughout the United States and Europe on how to create sustainable social impact and recently cofounded the Grunin Center for Law and Social Entrepreneurship at NYU School of Law. When she was CEO of Specialisterne USA, she led the autism@work and neurodiversity@work programs at Salesforce, Goldman Sachs, TDBank, Deloitte, PwC, P&G, IPG Mediabrands/Kinesso, AT&T, and MITRE. She is also a keynote speaker, moderator, and expert panelist worldwide, including Moderator at United Nations World Autism Awareness Day.

Karen R. Johnson, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas, USA. Her research focuses on workplace training, learning, and performance improvement. In her research, she advocates for minority/underrepresented populations often excluded from opportunity in the workplace, including emphasis on the investigation of dynamic organization development interventions that aid the transition, retention, and work outcomes of individuals with autism to the workforce. She is a 2020 recipient of the Academy of Human Resource Development Cutting Edge Award for a paper on Success Strategies for Employees with Autism Spectrum Disorder. She graduated from the University of the West Indies with a degree in Psychology and earned both an MA and a PhD in Work and Human Resource Education from the University of Minnesota.

Gundars Kaupins, PhD, is a Professor at Boise State University, USA. He has a PhD in Human Resource Management from the University of Iowa and is a Society for Human Resource Management – Senior Certified Professional and Senior Professional in Human Resources (SPHR). His publications include five books and over 80 journal articles on autism in the workplace, ethics, design thinking, human resource management, and ethics. His autism-related journal articles are on the employment and evaluation of individuals on the autism spectrum in the teaching profession. He is a board member of a nonprofit that supports organizations involved with autism (Idaho Nonprofit Center) and a nonprofit that directly trains individuals on the spectrum (AquAbility)

Jillian Saylors, PhD, Washington State University, USA. My research in Neurodiversity engages social justice, critical pedagogy, critical race, feminism, and Dialogical storytelling Theatrics. I investigate Autism and employment, institutional theory, legitimacy, leadership, and organizational change. The question is how do managers incorporate individual differences into the day-to-day interactions of working towards the organizational goals? I have been investigating Autism for a decade and I have developed an approach of organizational change that integrates organizational theories and dialogical storytelling theatrics that may create a space for all individuals to be different but reach a consensus towards organizational ends.

Daniel J. Svyantek, PhD, received his degree from the University of Houston. He was a faculty member in the Industrial/Organizational (I-O) Psychology PhD program at The University of Akron from 1987 to 2003. He is currently a Full Professor in the Psychology Department of Auburn University. He has published in journals such as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences, and Human Relations. He has served as Editor of the journal, Organizational Analysis and is currently Series Editor for the series, Research in Organizational Sciences. His research interest areas include person–organization fit issues. He has written on the implications of person–organization fit for organizations and members of diverse groups entering the adult workforce. In addition, he is interested in the role of organizational culture as the context for the performance and quality of working life for employees in organizations.

Meaghan Timko, MS, is an experienced Board Certified Behavior Analyst, entrepreneur, and innovator who owns Parallel, an international consulting agency focused on strategic transition planning and neurodiverse workforce development. She holds a BS in Psychology and certificate in Performance Management from Florida State University and an MS in Applied Behavior Analysis from Florida Institute of Technology. Driven by a desire to create meaningful change, she employs a systems approach to affecting both ends of the opportunity pipeline. As an advocate for a more inclusive society, her goals include educating the comprehensive web of people who influence avenues of human development on the benefits of neurodiversity. In addition to her work, Meaghan has been recognized by organizations such as Autism Speaks, the Cobb County, Georgia Chamber of Commerce, and LiveSafe Resources in Marietta, Georgia, for her leadership and contributions to the Atlanta community.

Kasha Williams, MS, is a doctoral student in Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. She obtained her undergrad degree and MBA from Florida A&M University, with a concentration in Accounting. Her research interests are workplace learning analytics and quantitative methods of research. Kasha's research has been presented at conferences including the 32nd Annual Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education (SITE) Conference and the 14th Annual Learning Ideas Conference. Her career background includes both industry and academic experiences. She has “Big 4” auditing experience and worked as a Senior Accountant in the oil and gas industry before moving on to teach Accounting and Business Technology courses.

Margaret Young, MS, is a PhD student in Clinical Psychology at Auburn University. She completed her undergraduate education at the University of Dayton in 2016 and received her MS in Psychology from Auburn University in 2017. She is currently completing her PhD at Auburn University and has plans to attend the University of Louisville predoctoral internship in Pediatric Psychology for her final year of predoctoral training. Clinically, she has interests in working with pediatric populations, including: hematology/oncology, solid organ transplant, and within consultation/liaison services. Maggie has been trained in the administration of neurodevelopmental assessment instruments, including the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS-2). She has research interests in psychosocial outcomes related to solid organ transplant, adherence, and the transition from pediatric to adult health care.

About the Editors

Cristina M. Giannantonio, PhD, is a Professor of Management in the Argyros School of Business and Economics at Chapman University. She is a Research Associate of the Thompson Policy Institute on Disability and Autism at Chapman University. She is the coauthor of Autism in the Workplace: Creating Positive Employment and Career Outcomes for Generation A published in 2020 as part of the Palgrave Explorations in Workplace Stigma series. Dr Giannantonio's research interests include autism in the workplace, extreme leadership, and image norms. Her research has been published in academic journals, including the Journal of Management, Personnel Psychology, and Personnel Review. She was the coeditor of the Journal of Business and Management from 2004 to 2016. Dr Giannantonio and Dr Hurley-Hanson's book Extreme Leadership: Leaders, Teams and Situations Outside the Norm was published by Edward Elgar Publishing in 2014. Her work on autism in the workplace has been presented at conferences around the world and published in leading academic journals

Amy E. Hurley-Hanson, PhD, is a Professor of Management in the George L. Argyros School of Business and Economics at Chapman University. She is a Research Associate in the Thompson Policy Institute on Disability and Autism at Chapman University. She is the coauthor of Autism in the Workplace: Creating Positive Employment and Career Outcomes for Generation A published in 2020 as part of the Palgrave Explorations in Workplace Stigma series. Her research has been published in numerous journals including the Journal of Vocational Behavior, Journal of Applied Psychology, Personnel Review, Women in Management Review, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Group and Organization Management, Journal of Leadership and Organization Development, and Organizational Dynamics. She is the coeditor of the book Extreme Leadership: Leaders, Teams and Situations Outside the Norm. She was the coeditor of the Journal of Business and Management for 12 years. Dr Hurley-Hanson was chosen as an Ascendant Scholar in 2000 by the Western Academy of Management. Her work on autism in the workplace has been presented at conferences around the world and published in leading academic journals.

Preface

While much research has historically focused on young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), far less research has examined the issues young adults with ASD and other forms of neurodiversity face as they transition into the workplace. Austin and Pisano (2017), in their much-cited Harvard Business Review article, detail the numerous advantages that neurodiverse individuals bring to the workplace. The authors suggest that neurodiverse applicants represent an enormous pool of untapped talent that could increase companies' productivity. Researchers have identified some potential skill sets and common characteristics of neurodiverse individuals that may benefit organizations. These skills include visual acuity, more deliberative decision-making, increased attentional focus, logical thinking, affinity for technology, as well as professional and occupational interests in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields (Crespi, 2016). STEM fields are of particular interest, as there is a growing need for a skilled workforce in these areas (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Neurodiverse individuals may be an ideal fit for this segment of the labor market. Forty percent of global corporations are having trouble recruiting the talent they need (Manpower Group, 2018). The demand for talent is expected to dramatically increase as businesses and the economy return to prepandemic levels as vaccination rates increase and infection rates decline (Coy, 2021).

Despite the skill sets of neurodiverse applicants, the unemployment and underemployment rates for neurodiverse individuals, as compared to the general population, remain staggeringly high (Baldwin, Costley, & Warren, 2014; Krieger, Kinebanian, Prodinger, & Heigl, 2012; Nord, Stancliffe, Nye-Legerman, & Hewitt, 2016; Richards, 2012; Roux et al., 2013; Scott, Falkmer, Girdler, & Falkmer, 2015; Shattuck et al., 2012). Unemployment statistics for adults with ASD reveal that 85% are unemployed and that 69% of them want to work (National Autistic Society, 2016). Research has shown that many individuals with ASD have never been members of the labor force (Cidav, Marcus, & Mandell, 2012).

Shattuck et al. (2012) found that 35% of young adults with autism have never held a job, been members of the labor force, nor attended educational programs after high school (Cidav et al., 2012; Shattuck et al., 2012). A study of 200 transition-age young adults with ASD found that 81% were unemployed (Gerhardt & Lanier, 2010). A small study of young adults with ASD and IQs above 50 found that only 11.76% were employed (Howlin, Goode, Hutton, & Rutter, 2004). Other studies have found that approximately half of young adults with ASD have worked for pay after high school (Roux et al., 2013). The same study also found that the odds of ever having a paid job were higher for those who were older, from higher-income households, or who had better conversational or functional skills (Roux et al., 2013).

The statistics for young adults are particularly troubling, as it is estimated that a half-million individuals with ASD will reach adulthood in the current decade and will be poised to enter the workplace in unprecedented numbers. These numbers are staggering and suggest the need to examine the long-term employment, career, and life outcomes for this generational cohort. Hurley-Hanson, Giannantonio, and Griffiths (2020) introduced the term Generation A to refer to this generational cohort of young adults with ASD. According to Autism Speaks (2019), “Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and autism are both general terms for a group of complex disorders of brain development. These disorders are characterized, in varying degrees, by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors.” The World Health Organization (2013) describes ASD as “neurodevelopmental impairments in communication and social interaction and unusual ways of perceiving and processing information” (p. 7). As such, individuals with ASD often have difficulty in understanding the thoughts, intentions, and emotions of others (Bruggink, Huisman, Vuijk, Kraaij, & Garnefski, 2016). Some individuals with ASD may have difficulty regulating their own emotions. These challenges may create transition and employment issues for young adults with ASD (Samson, Huber, & Gross, 2012), not only as they enter the workplace, but potentially throughout their lives as their careers unfold.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1 in 54 (18.5%) children are on the autism spectrum, and the presence of ASD is 4.3 times more common in boys (29.7%, 1 in 34) than in girls (6.9%, 1 in 144) (CDC, 2020). Autism Speaks (2019) estimates that there are 3.5 million people with ASD in the United States. The number of people affected by ASD is estimated to be in the tens of millions worldwide. Although it is difficult to get exact numbers, it is estimated that 1% of the world's population has autism (CDC, 2018; Grønborg, Schendel, & Parner, 2013; Malcolm-Smith, Hoogenhout, Ing, De Vries & Thomas, 2013.; Wallace et al. 2012).

Each year the United Nations hosts World Autism Awareness Day. The theme in 2015 was Employment (The Autism Advantage, 2015), which highlighted the potential for persons with autism to make significant contributions in the workplace, given their unique individual strengths. It noted the widespread discrimination in the workplace against people with autism and the limited vocational training and job opportunities available to them. The number of individuals with ASD both in the United States and throughout the world represents an untapped and often overlooked segment of the labor force for organizations seeking to fill job vacancies and meet current and projected skills gaps (Austin & Pisano, 2017).

It is within this context that chapters were selected to be included in this edited volume. Each chapter examines various factors that may play a role in generating a neurodiverse workforce for the benefit of both organizations and individuals with ASD. These chapters capture contemporary research and practice from a diverse range of scholars, practitioners, and educators, with the goal of building connections between research and practice focused on issues of neurodiversity in the workplace. While all of the chapters in this volume focus on ASD, it should be noted that neurodiversity also includes dyspraxia, dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dyscalculia, Tourette's syndrome, and other neurological differences. It is hoped that future research on neurodiversity in the workplace focuses on these and other neurological differences to discover the best practices that will lead to positive work, career, and life outcomes for neurodiverse individuals.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank our families, friends, and colleagues who supported us as we worked to put together the chapters that comprise this edited volume. We are grateful to our families for their unwavering support, encouragement, and patience. We are both aware that the time we spend writing is time we do not spend with them.

We would like to thank our colleagues in the Argyros School of Business and Economics for their support and friendship. Rita Desjardins, Aulton Kohn Jr, Linda Corcoran, and Jennifer Brady personify organizational commitment, and we could not do our jobs without them. We would like to acknowledge the help and support of Eileen Bresner in the Office of Faculty Affairs. Eileen shepherded both of us through the process of going up for Full Professor with patience, warmth, and grace.

We also appreciate the support and advice of the editorial team at Emerald Publishing, especially Charlotte Maiorana, who became familiar with our work, reached out to us with the idea of becoming series editors for Emerald Publishing, and who championed this first book in the series. We also wish to thank Kiruthika Andappan and Hayley Coulson along with the rest of Emerald's publishing team for their help in making this book a reality. We are particularly grateful to the authors who contributed chapters focusing on Generation A. We are excited to have had the opportunity to work with researchers, practitioners, and educators who are committed to improving the work experiences and careers of Generation A.

Few of us could have imagined the challenges, adjustments, and obstacles that the pandemic would bring. COVID-19 attempted to derail many of our authors by shutting down research sites, limiting the ability to conduct in-person interviews, restricting travel, closing campuses, striking them and their families with the virus, and losing loved ones to the disease. Unprecedented rain in parts of the United States and Australia left some of our authors with flooded homes and no running water or electricity for weeks, while fires in Southern California resulted in last-minute evacuations for others. We are grateful for their dedication to their research and their commitment to creating a more inclusive workplace for members of Generation A. We thank them for their patience with us, for the many revisions, and for putting our deadlines ahead of their own during a challenging year.

Finally, neither of us could have produced this book alone. We are fortunate to be friends who work together and colleagues who are friends.

Cristina M. Giannantonio and Amy E. Hurley-Hanson

Professors of Management

Chapman University