Bastion of social democracy
, 197–208
Bolshevik(s)
, 35, 38, 61, 96–98, 105, 109, 110, 140, 143
Communism
, 47
Consolidation of Power
, 123–131
dictatorship
, 37
emergence
, 105
Hammer and Sickle Over Russia
, 131–133
Leninism
, 34–36
from Leninism to Stalinism
, 133–138
Marxists in Russia
, 29
Months of Turbulent Power Struggle
, 114–123
propaganda
, 115
Revolution
, 37, 43, 61, 126, 133, 139, 151, 206, 228, 275
Russia
, 207, 234, 242, 246
Bourgeoisie
, 1, 128, 160
capitalist
, 94
Jewish
, 109
Parisian
, 13
petite
, 238
power
, 18
rise of
, 1–7
in Western Europe
, 32
Britain
, 1, 3, 5, 11, 22, 42, 68, 211, 226, 261
industrial lead
, 23
industrial pioneer
, 216
labor parties
, 70, 216
overseas dominance
, 165
British-settled colonies
, 29
Budapest
, 232, 234, 236, 237
Cape of Good Hope Route
, 1–2
Capital, The
, 10, 16, 42, 107, 111, 121, 127, 269
Capitalism
, 9, 10, 22, 30, 48–49
expansion
, 19
finance
, 20
Marxist prophecy of collapse
, 37
return
, 40
transformation to Communism
, 14
See also Socialism
“Capitalist liberal militarism”
, 54
Catholic Center Party
, 181
Catholicism
, 58, 107, 239, 251–252
Catholics
, 53, 175, 191, 226
China
, 240, 247, 261
and Communist Guerrilla Warfare
, 242–245
communist movement in
, 30, 243
defenders
, 244
socioeconomic and institutional development in
, 241
weakness
, 245
“Chivalrous enthusiasm”
, 9
Civil War
in Finland
, 207
in France
, 13
“Class struggle”
, 8, 38, 129
outcome
, 33
over representation
, 4
revolutionary
, 31
Comintern
, 35, 39, 135, 182
Comintern-member Labor Party
, 206
directives in Moscow
, 185
recommendations and recommended policies
, 38, 41, 217
“Commercial manufacturing sector”
, 242
Communism
, 48, 208, 240–242, 255, 267, 270
in Far East
, 240–242, 246–247
among Jewish minorities
, 85–86
marginality
, 218
social democracy vs.
, 53
Autocratic militarism
, 53–54
development of Communist Party
, 59–60
inter-group inequality
, 55
“intransigent and intolerant” dimensions
, 57
radicalism
, 55–56, 58
rural migrants
, 56–57
socioeconomic factors
, 55
in Russia
, 110
institutional and socioeconomic dimension
, 100–109
path dependency or deterministic path
, 110–152
Tzarist Russia and Socialism
, 90–99
transformation from Capitalism
, 14
War
, 128–129, 130, 133
See also Fascism; Socialism
Communist to socialist votes ratio (C/S)
, 67
Communist(s)
, 34, 67, 70, 174, 186, 217–218, 227, 229, 235–236, 243
Bolshevik Leninism
, 34–36
election performance of communist parties
, 233
Eugen Levine
, 180
Gramscianism
, 37–38
Guerrilla Warfare
, 242–245
League
, 8
Manifesto
, 8
party
, 37, 243
Spartacists
, 36–37
Stalinism
, 38–39
Trotskyism
, 39–41
Conservatism
, 160, 239, 269, 272
of bourgeoisie in Western Europe
, 32
of rural populations
, 239
wave
, 161
Conservatives (CV)
, 51, 140, 147, 186
Bismarkian regime
, 162
cooperation with
, 187
decision
, 269
“Corporative” approach
, 205
CV. See Conservatives (CV)
Czechoslovakia
, 29, 41, 217, 229, 236, 239
Dataset
names of parties in
, 285–289
setting
, 70–73
DDP. See German Democratic Party (DDP)
Decentralized federalism
, 50
“Democratic Centralism”
, 35–36, 59, 60, 151
Democratization
, 93, 269–270
alternatives
, 55
process
, 174
Denmark
, 197–198, 205–206
Deterministic path
, 176–190
Communism in Russia
, 110
Russia and two decades of great political transformation
February–March revolution
, 110–114
hammer and sickle over Russia
, 131–133
from Leninism to Stalinism
, 133–138
months of turbulent power struggle
, 114–123
Red October and Bolshevik Consolidation of Power
, 123–131
path dependency or deterministic path
, 147–152
theoretical explanation
, 138
decision rules
, 138
“decision theoretic” with externalities
, 139
power game development
, 141–147
time framework
, 140–141
“Dictatorship of the Proletariat”
, 10, 13, 14, 15, 19, 24, 31, 34, 37, 40, 63, 179, 275
Dollfuss, Dr. Engelbert
, 239
“Dual agrarian-industrial societies”
, 50–51
“Duma”
, 97, 104, 128
committee
, 113
election results for Russian Duma
, 98
seats
, 98, 104
GDP
, 72, 73
growth rate
, 69, 88
per capita
, 101, 211, 231
Genuine Marxist movement
, 34
German
allies
, 13
army
, 27, 126
cases
, 197
economy
, 168, 170, 184, 191
Empire
, 13, 22, 23, 28, 99, 115
forces in World war II
, 41
Intelligence
, 99
losses
, 42
military supremacy
, 143
naval schemes
, 26
reallocation of forces to Western Front
, 127
Socialism
, 8
states
, 8, 13
Third German Reich
, 42, 43
troops
, 42, 99, 111
German Democratic Party (DDP)
, 181
German Social Democratic party
, 24
Germany
, 159, 174
of 19th and early 20th century
, 159
ADAV
, 162
case of
, 191–192
conservatism
, 160
election results and labor disputes in
, 166
German domains of Austrian Empire
, 161
institutional and socioeconomic dimension
, 168–176
path dependency
, 176–190
SDAP
, 163
socialist threat
, 164
SPD
, 165
GNP. See Gross National Product (GNP)
Great Depression
, 33, 184–185, 190, 205, 239, 251
Great War
, 19–24, 261, 269
and socialist triumph
, 25–28
storm
, 98–99
Gross National Product (GNP)
, 171, 184
Imperialist strive
, 19–23
Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)
, 275
Ind. See Level of Industrialization (Ind.)
Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD)
, 177
Industrial revolution
, 1–7
Industrialization
, 6, 100–103, 148, 168–172, 216–217, 222, 224, 231, 242
effect on GDP
, 198, 202
process
, 171
Inequality (I)
, 51–52, 65, 69, 72, 82–83, 87, 202, 215, 257, 273
Institutional
dimension
, 100
culture and religion
, 106–107
human development
, 103–104
industrialization
, 100–103
nationalist sentiments
, 107–108
role of minorities
, 108–109
Russian economy
, 100–103
Tzarist authoritarianism
, 104–106
urbanization
, 100–103
factors
, 176–177, 211, 246–247, 251
and socioeconomic dimension
, 168
ethnic and religious heterogeneity
, 174–176
human development
, 172–173
industrialization and socioeconomic transformation
, 168–172
nationalist sentiments
, 174
political freedoms
, 173–174
“Institutionalized mechanisms”
, 50
Inter-group inequality
, 55
Internal Affairs
, 137, 138, 235
“International Workers Aid”
, 183
“International Workingmen’s Association”
, 11
Interwar period
, 29
multiideological struggle, years of
, 29–30
Socialism and Communism
, 30
communists
, 34–41
social democrats
, 30–34
ISI. See Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)
Italy
, 25, 28, 51, 58, 164, 218, 220, 222–224
election performance of socialist and communist parties and labor disputes in
, 221
religious and linguistic homogeneity in
, 220
socioeconomic and institutional development in
, 219
Spain and
, 228–229
Labor Party
, 202, 206, 208, 216
“Labor repressive institutions”
, 55
“Labor Theory of Value”
, 17
Lassalle, Ferdinand
, 31, 161–162
Latin America
, 251
election performance of socialist and communist parties
, 256
Mexican case
, 255, 257–260
religious and linguistic homogeneity
, 252
socioeconomic and institutional development in Latin America
, 253–254
Leftist anarchists
, 11–12, 14, 15, 16
Lenin
, 14, 31, 34, 49, 95, 115, 116, 120, 122, 125, 126, 129, 131, 154
death
, 134
health threat
, 133
Imperialism, the highest stage of Capitalism
, 20, 37, 48
revolutionary approach
, 35
Leninism to Stalinism
, 133–138
Level of Democracy and Political Freedoms (Dem)
, 64, 68–69
Level of Industrialization (Ind.)
, 63, 67, 83
Level of Urbanization
, 63–64, 68, 220
“Liberal reformist incorporation”
, 54
Linguistic and Religious Homogeneity/Heterogeneity
, 64, 69
Literacy
, 53, 64, 211, 220, 252
Luxemburg, Rosa
, 36, 37, 167, 180, 208
Majority Social Democratic Party (MSPD)
, 177
Marx, Karl
, 5, 7–19, 23, 30–32, 34, 52, 60, 89, 95, 162, 164
See also Das Kapital; Socialism
Marxism
, 1, 7, 51
birth of
, 7–11
Communist Manifesto
, 8
“Dictatorship of Proletariat”
, 10
historical determinism
, 9
Marxist-leaning revolutionary wing
, 11
Marxist Socialism
, 4, 11, 64, 89, 197, 242
“International Workingmen’s Association”
, 11
“Labor Theory of Value”
, 17
Scientific Socialism
, 19
surplus value
, 16
See also Socialism
Marxist theory
, 15, 47–48
Massive state growth
, 3–4
Mediterranean South European countries
, 218
Menshevik–Socialist Revolutionary alliance
, 117
Mexican
modernization
, 255
Revolution
, 258–259
social democracy and postcolonial nationalism
, 255, 257–260
Modernization
, 52, 109, 152–153, 257
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
, 41
Monopolistic alliances
, 31
Moscow’s international leadership
, 35
MSPD. See Majority Social Democratic Party (MSPD)
Multiideological struggle, years of
, 29–30
Munich Agreement (1938)
, 217–218
“Municipal Socialism”
, 238
Mussolini, Benito
, 29, 184, 223–224, 229
“Paris Commune”
, 13, 14, 217
Parliamentary democratic systems
, 180, 207
Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM)
, 258–259
Party of France (PCF)
, 217
Path dependency
, 110, 176–190, 229, 240, 246–247
dramatic years of Weimar Republic
, 177–186
Russia and two decades of great political transformation
, 110–138
theoretical explanation
, 138
decision rules
, 138
“decision theoretic” with externalities
, 139
path dependency or deterministic path
, 147–152
power game development
, 141–147
time framework
, 140–141
theoretical understanding for German case
, 186–190
PCF. See Party of France (PCF)
Platonic Utopian dreams
, 7
PLM. See Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM)
Political freedoms
, 173–174
Political reform
, 197–198
Political transformation, Russia and
February–March revolution
, 110–114
hammer and sickle over Russia
, 131–133
from Leninism to Stalinism
, 133–138
months of turbulent power struggle
, 114
“April Doctrine”
, 116
Bolshevik leadership
, 120
Bolsheviks’ Central Committee
, 122
expatriate Socialist intellectuals
, 116–117
Petrograd Soviet
, 121–122
provisional government
, 115
revolutionary military committee
, 123
Socialist Russians
, 119
Soviet-based rule for Russia
, 118
Tzarist Russia
, 114
Red October and Bolshevik Consolidation of Power
, 123–131
Popular Front
, 217, 225, 226–227, 228, 229
Postcolonial nationalism
, 255, 257–260
Power game development
, 141–147
Proletariat’s permanent revolution
, 40
“Protohegemonic parties”
, 58
Radicalism
, 55–56, 215, 220, 275
“Red Front Fighters League”
, 183
Red October and Bolshevik Consolidation of Power
, 123
“All Russia Congress of Peasants Deputies”
, 125
Bolshevik antiwar propaganda
, 126
Bolshevik attack
, 124
“Council of People’s Commissars”
, 124
monopolized power and totalitarian Soviet regime
, 127
“Red Terror”
, 128–129
Socialist Revolutionary “Fanni Kaplan’s” assassination trial
, 130
strategic Peter and Paul Fortress
, 123
Tzarist rule
, 124
War Communism and Red Terror
, 130–131
“White movement”
, 128
“Red Terror”
, 128–129, 130–131
Reichstag
, 163, 164, 173–174, 178, 186
“Reinsurance Treaty”
, 164
Religious and linguistic homogeneity
in Austria and Hungary
, 231
in Italy and Spain
, 220
in Latin America
, 252
in Scandinavia
, 198
in Western Europe
, 215
Revolution
, 161, 174
Bolshevik
, 61, 275
February–March
, 110–114
French
, 3, 91, 92
industrial
, 1–7
Mexican
, 258–259
November
, 1918, 177–180
Proletariat’s permanent
, 40
Second Industrial Revolution
, 19–23, 198
Victorious Mexican
, 258–259
Revolution Betrayed, The
, 151
Revolutionary military committee
, 123
Rivera, Miguel Primo de
, 224
RSDLP. See Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP)
Russia
, 159, 174, 197
authoritarian Tzarist state
, 267
Communism in
institutional and socioeconomic dimension
, 100–109
path dependency or deterministic path
, 110–152
Tzarist Russia and Socialism
, 90–99
and two decades of great political transformation
February–March revolution
, 110–114
hammer and sickle over Russia
, 131–133
from Leninism to Stalinism
, 133–138
months of turbulent power struggle
, 114–123
Red October and Bolshevik Consolidation of Power
, 123–131
Russian
, 108
army
, 28, 93, 111
economy
, 100–103
Empire
, 23, 25–27, 29, 36, 48–49, 51, 91–94, 98, 99, 107, 108
expansionism
, 92
Intellectuals
, 106
Marxist movement
, 34, 94, 96
Parliament
, 104
Tsar
, 34, 90
Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP)
, 35, 95
“Saint Petersburg” city
, 91, 96, 97, 268
Scandinavia
, 197
case of Finland
, 206–207
election performance of social democrats and communists
, 203–204
inequality
, 202
linguistic and religious homogeneity
, 198
social democrats
, 207–208
socioeconomic and institutional development
, 199–201
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark
, 205–206
Schlieffen Plan
, 27, 28, 165, 167
Scientific intelligence
, 16
SD. See Social Democrats (SD)
SDAP. See Sozialdemokratische Deutsche Arbeiter Partei (SDAP)
Second Industrial Revolution
, 19–23, 198
Second International
, 23–24, 28, 30, 33, 34
Section Francaise de l’ Internationale Ouvriere (SFIO)
, 217
“Sectional organizations”
, 20
“Segmental organizations”
, 20
“Semi parliamentary constitutions”
, 54
“Semi-authoritarian incorporation”
, 54
Semi-authoritarianism
, 190, 268–269
Sensitivity to initial conditions
, 139, 190
SFIO. See Section Francaise de l’ Internationale Ouvriere (SFIO)
Social Democracy
, 29–30, 70, 218, 255, 257–260, 269–270
bastion of
, 197–208
Communism vs.
, 53
Autocratic militarism
, 53–54
development of Communist Party
, 59–60
inter-group inequality
, 55
“intransigent and intolerant” dimensions of
, 57
radicalism
, 55–56, 58
rural migrants
, 56–57
socioeconomic factors
, 55
Social Democratic Party (SPD)
, 24
Social Democrats (SD)
, 24, 28, 29, 30, 34, 67, 70, 83, 98, 174, 177, 186, 205, 206, 207–208, 215, 229, 232, 235
and Communists
, 159
Keynesian ideas
, 33
laissez faire
, 33
revolutionary approach
, 31
social democratic factions
, 96
Socialist Democrats’ Second International
, 34
SPD
, 30
urban population
, 32
Social Revolution, The
, 31
Socialism
, 1, 4, 47, 51, 166, 267–268, 275
birth of Marxism
, 7–11
towards great war
, 19
second industrial revolution, finance capital, and imperialist strive
, 19–23
second international
, 23–24
socioeconomic and institutional development in Western Europe
, 21
great war and socialist triumph
, 25–28
interwar period
, 29–41
map of Europe
, 2
popularity of
, 48–53
rise of popularity of
, 23–24
South Europe between Socialism and Fascism
, 218
Italy
, 222–224, 228–229
literacy and education
, 220
religious and linguistic homogeneity
, 220
socioeconomic and institutional development
, 219
Spain
, 224–229
Tzarist Russia and
, 90
election results for Russian Duma
, 98
storm of great war
, 98–99
toward 20th century
, 90–96
years of revolutionary build-up (1905–1914)
, 96–98
Western Europe, industrial revolution, and rise of Bourgeoisie
, 1–7
World War II
, 41–43
See also Capitalism
Socialist Party of Austria (SPO)
, 238, 239, 240
Socialist Revolutionary “Fanni Kaplan’s” assassination trial
, 130
Socialists
, 67, 70, 207, 217–218, 238
election performance of socialist parties
, 233
intellectuals
, 32
party
, 222–223
policies
, 225
Socialist vote
, 81–82
socialist-induced activities
, 82–83
socialist–liberal rule
, 114
triumph
, 25–28
variants
, 251–260
Socioeconomic
factor
, 176–177, 211, 246–247, 251
transformation
, 6, 168–172
Socioeconomic and institutional development
in Austria and Hungary
, 230
in Italy and Spain
, 219
in Latin America
, 252
in Scandinavia
, 199–201
in USA
, 248
in Western Europe
, 212–214
Socioeconomic dimension
, 100
culture and religion
, 106–107
human development
, 103–104
industrialization
, 100–103
nationalist sentiments
, 107–108
role of minorities
, 108–109
Russian economy
, 100–103
Tzarist authoritarianism
, 104–106
urbanization
, 100–103
South Europe between Socialism and Fascism
, 218
election performance of socialist and communist parties
, 221
Italy
, 222–224
religious and linguistic homogeneity in Italy and Spain
, 220
socioeconomic and institutional development in Italy and Spain
, 219
Spain
, 224–227
threads of line
, 228–229
Soviet Communist
, 237, 274–275
Soviet Direct Intervention
, 245–246
Soviet Union
, 30, 38, 40, 242
Sozialdemokratische Deutsche Arbeiter Partei (SDAP)
, 163
Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschland (SPD)
, 163, 165
Spain
, 220, 224–227
election performance of socialist and communist parties and labor disputes in
, 221
Italy and
, 228–229
religious and linguistic homogeneity in
, 220
socioeconomic and institutional development in
, 219
Spartacists
, 36–37, 178–179, 180, 187, 188, 189
SPD. See Social Democratic Party (SPD); Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschland (SPD)
SPO. See Socialist Party of Austria (SPO)
Stalinism
, 38–39
institutional cultural factors
, 154
from Leninism to
, 133–138
of Leninist state
, 268
Soviet Russia
, 151
“Strategic voting” model
, 61
Strength of Nationalist Sentiments
, 64, 68
Swedish Social Democrats
, 33, 205
War Communism
, 128–129, 130, 133
Weimar Republic
, 33, 176, 181
dramatic years of
, 177
classical economic principles
, 185
Communist revolutionary threat
, 183
hyperinflation period
, 184
KPD
, 186
November 1918 Revolution
, 177–180
socioeconomic and institutional development
, 182
Western Europe
, 1–7, 168
socioeconomic and institutional development in
, 21
Western European democracies
, 208
election performance of socialist and communist parties
, 209–210
France and long socialist heritage
, 216–218
GDP per capita
, 211
industrial Pioneer and Labor Party
, 216
religious and linguistic homogeneity
, 215
social democracy
, 218
socioeconomic and institutional development
, 212–214
World cases
Austria–Hungary empire
, 229–247
Latin America and socialist variants
, 251–260
Scandinavia
, 197–208
South Europe between Socialism and Fascism
, 218–229
United States
, 247–251
Western European democracies
, 208–218
World War I
, 24, 27, 28, 41, 50, 64, 97–98, 104, 131, 153–154, 177, 202, 205, 222, 224, 249, 260–261, 269, 270
World War II
, 41–43, 90, 136, 226, 244, 246, 274
See also Interwar period