Shining a light on the unseen athletes: stories of exclusion and resistance among gay athletes in professional team sports

Abstract

Purpose

This study uncovers the challenges and coping mechanisms related to stigma and discrimination experienced by gay professional team sport athletes.

Design/methodology/approach

Utilizing interpretive phenomenological analysis, this study recruited six gay athletes in professional team sports. Data were collected through virtual one-on-one semi-structured interviews, along with field notes and reflexive journaling, and were thematically analyzed.

Findings

The first theme highlights the discrimination and marginalization experienced by gay athletes in professional team sports, as well as the perceived differences between these athletes and their heterosexual counterparts. The second theme includes anecdotes illustrating their experiences of exclusion, along with counter-stories that resist marginalization. The last theme comprises stories that underscore the lack of acceptance and advocacy, emphasizing the awareness education aimed at making the sporting realm more inclusive.

Research limitations/implications

Despite the extensive recruiting efforts for this study, numerous sports and countries remain unexplored. Follow-up studies are required to fill this gap. As this study was initiated, additional research is needed to provide information on athletes who are still in the closet. Cross-comparisons between gay athletes and their heterosexual teammates can help bridge the gap in perspectives.

Practical implications

Participants emphasized collective efforts in creating inclusive and welcoming environments for gay athletes, including anti-discrimination policies related to language use, showers and relocation adjustments.

Social implications

Participants have put forth concrete recommendations for enhancing inclusivity within team sport environments and society at large, including proposals for early educational initiatives within the school systems.

Originality/value

This is the first empirical study that focuses on the experiences of gay professional team sport athletes.

Citation

Voth, C. and Yi, K.J. (2024), "Shining a light on the unseen athletes: stories of exclusion and resistance among gay athletes in professional team sports", Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-11-2023-0404

Introduction

In recent years, LGBTQ+ athletes have become more visible in the professional sports realm, exemplified by the steady rise of “out” professional athletes competing at major sporting events such as the Olympics, FIFA World Cup and various other local, national and international sports tournaments. However, visibility does not necessarily equate to acceptance and inclusivity. Numerous studies on the experiences of gay athletes report that these individuals frequently encounter disrespectful stereotyping, hear derogatory insults and experience sexual violence and harassment (Denison et al., 2020; Harmon, 2020; Herrick and Duncan, 2018).

Even within LGBTQ+ communities, there exists a significant difference in terms of visibility. In the context of professional sport, many more women have been able to be open about their sexuality compared to men (Anderson, 2002; Vilanova et al., 2020). These statistics indicate that gay athletes choose to pursue careers in individual sports, while being deterred from playing team sports. The perceived physical and emotional unsafety, as well as a lack of acceptance and inclusivity within team-based cultures are the likely reasons for the lack of participation (Denison et al., 2020; Herrick and Duncan, 2018; Vilanova et al., 2020). Therefore, numerous athletes decide not to come out before retirement. Indeed, many men’s team sports do not showcase a diverse range of individuals, especially considering sexuality. This lack of representation perpetuates the perception that coming out will hinder career opportunities, resulting in future athletes concealing their sexual orientation too (Anderson, 2002; Vilanova et al., 2020).

According to Anderson (2010a), sport in Western society has undergone three distinct periods concerning the inclusion of gay athletes: homoerasure, homohysteria and inclusion. Homoerasure refers to a period where there is a denial that homosexuality, particularly in sports, exists at all. This phenomenon can still be observed in some countries around the world, mostly authoritarian or religious ones. Homohysteria refers to the rejection of gay athletes in sports unless they are granted permission based on their talent. Recent studies suggest that sports have reached the inclusion stage, with evidence of challenges to heteronormative culture. Examples include embracing teammates with hugs, buttock slaps and even behaviors previously stereotyped as metrosexual, such as wearing tight pants and participating in nude photo shoots (Anderson, 2018; Anderson and Fidler, 2018; McCormack and Anderson, 2014). Much of the research suggests that many Western sports industries have entered a post-homohysteria era, meaning that it is now the inclusion period for gay athletes (Anderson and Fidler, 2018; McCormack and Anderson, 2014). Nevertheless, there are only a limited number of athletes who have come out as gay within the professional team sports realm.

Therefore, this study aims to uncover the mechanisms behind the lack of representation in professional sport and provide insights into addressing this issue of inequality. The study investigates the experiences of gay athletes in professional team sport contexts and identifies the factors preventing these athletes from playing team sports or publicly coming out. By shedding light on the unseen experiences of these athletes, this study can lay the groundwork for future research and spark dialogues that drive social change.

The study highlights the challenges that gay professional athletes face in terms of stigma, discrimination, negotiation/resistance and acceptance within their teams and the wider sports community, which have traditionally been male-dominated and heteronormative environments. The study also explores the coping mechanisms that gay professional athletes use to navigate these challenges and how their sexual orientation intersects with other aspects of their identity. Revealing the unique experiences of gay athletes in professional team sports can further inform the policies and practices of sporting organizations aiming to enhance equality, diversity and inclusion. The stories of gay professional athletes can provide real-life examples of resistance and achievements (Herrick et al., 2022), ignite positive societal changes, such as promoting the acceptance of gay athletes in the sports industry and beyond (The Canadian Centre for Gender and Sexual Diversity, n.d.), and increase participation rates in team sports among the next generation of the gay population, offering enhanced opportunities for positive youth development (Bruner et al., 2017).

While the literature indicates that sport becomes more inclusive for gay athletes (Anderson, 2011, 2018; Anderson and Fidler, 2018), it is essential to recognize the distinctions between professional athletes and those at the varsity or recreational levels. The key differences include the frequent necessity to switch teams and the constant media attention at the professional level. This initial revelation of unheard and silenced stories through empirical research emphasizes the importance of delving deeper into these topics, including examining the power of language, education and the insecurities reported by gay athletes.

This study is pioneering in its focus solely on gay athletes in the context of professional team sports. Due to the lack of representation of publicly “out” gay athletes in professional team sports, previous studies were unable to focus on these athletes. This study became possible due to the principal investigator’s first-hand experience within the gay community. There is little to no research conducted with gay athletes from outside the USA, UK, Canada and Australia. This study includes participants from outside these countries to diversify perspectives originating from various social and cultural contexts. It is the first empirical research that includes gay professional athletes who have not yet come out, shedding light on the unique experiences of athletes who are still in the closet.

Methodology

An interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) approach was employed to investigate the lived experiences and subjective perspectives of gay athletes in professional team sports (Denzin and Lincoln, 2017). This approach is particularly valuable when seeking a deeper understanding of individuals’ experiences and beliefs, as researchers analyze the meanings that individuals ascribe to their own experiences (Smith et al., 2009). IPA also involves rendering the phenomena under study visible, thereby enabling the stories of marginalized individuals that have remained unheard and silenced to reach a wider audience (Johnson and Parry, 2016). Through the conduct of semi-structured interviews and engagement in thematic analysis, this study facilitated the emergence of themes on unheard and silenced stories of exclusion and resistance among gay athletes in professional team sports.

Participants

Purposeful and heterogeneity sampling techniques were utilized to enhance the transferability of findings (Patton, 2015). The purposeful sampling strategy involves recruiting a specific population, in this case, gay athletes in professional team sports (Patton, 2015). Within that group, heterogeneity was pursued by recruiting participants across multiple factors, such as sport, country of origin and age (Patton, 2015). Priority was given to athletes competing in different sports, with secondary consideration based on the country of sport participation. All participants were cisgender males (gender identity corresponding with the sex registered at birth) who self-identify as gay and play a team sport at a professional level. This study relies on the participants’ self-identification of their sexuality, considering the diverse perspectives defining the term “gay” (Anderson, 2010b). A team sport is defined as a sport that involves more than two athletes competing against another team. To be considered professional, participants must primarily earn their income from sports or endorsements, as reported by the participants themselves.

Ethics clearance was obtained from the institutional review board before commencing recruitment. Maintaining the confidentiality of participants’ identities was of utmost importance. Participants compete or competed at the highest levels worldwide and preferred to remain anonymous in the results. Each participant was assigned an alias, and identifiable information was removed. All participants were given the opportunity to omit, edit or add to their responses during the respondent validation process (i.e. the review of interview transcripts and research findings) and could withdraw at any point up to publication (Patton, 2015).

Six gay athletes in professional team sports participated in this study, and a description of the participants is provided in Table 1 (suitable placement of Table 1). To safeguard the anonymity of the participants, pseudonyms were used, and only a brief description is provided. Among them were three volleyball players: Santiago in Spain, Tobias in Austria and Klaus in Germany. Miika played ice hockey in Finland, Dalton played rugby in the United Kingdom and Jackson from Canada participated in national and international curling competitions. For most participants, the country of sport participation differed from their country of origin. Only one participant was retired, and three had refrained from publicly coming out as gay at the time of data collection or during their career. Some details have been altered in the transcript to further conceal the participants’ identities, all of which were approved by the participants during the respondent validation process.

Data collection

Data were predominantly collected through virtual one-on-one semi-structured interviews conducted using online communication software, Zoom. In a semi-structured interview approach, a predetermined set of questions is not employed (Johnson and Parry, 2016). Participants were provided with a list of topics and questions (e.g. experiences of coming out and its impacts on careers, experiences of exclusion and marginalization, stories of resistance, recommendations and considerations for improvement) in advance, enabling them to reflect adequately and formulate well-prepared responses. This approach was particularly beneficial since some participants spoke English as a second language. Ebert and Goodwin (2020) emphasize that offering participants the opportunity to review the questions beforehand facilitate deeper reflection, leading them to share stories they had never previously disclosed.

The interviews typically spanned 45–90 min. Field notes were diligently recorded during the data collection process to capture the interview atmospheres and maintain the quality of the interview techniques. To ensure the integrity of the research process, the principal investigator employed reflexive journaling throughout the study (Zitomer and Goodwin, 2014). This practice aimed to identify the researcher’s positionality and minimize potential research biases. Reflexive journals were utilized during the data analysis phase to further mitigate research biases and served as a form of supplementary data.

Data analysis

The participant recruitment, data collection and data analysis occurred in a cyclical manner, allowing the researchers to determine when data saturation would be reached. It also enabled the exploration of concepts from earlier interviews in subsequent ones. Utilizing an IPA approach, themes emerged across participants through the application of thematic analysis (Denzin and Lincoln, 2017). This process involves the researchers meticulously examining all available data—interview transcripts, field notes and reflexive journals—to identify shared themes, concepts and ideas among participants. Smith et al. (2009) outline the process, which entails repeated readings of the data, coding, grouping of codes across participants and the subsequent formation of themes encapsulating each code.

The specific codes emerged organically from the participants’ responses in an inductive manner, alleviating subjectivity, as opposed to predetermining the exact codes to be sought (Johnson and Parry, 2016). This analytical approach aims to yield insights into the lived experiences of gay athletes in professional team sports, and not permit the formulation of generalized statements that could compare specific sports, countries, generations or other factors. This limitation is exacerbated due to the insufficient representation from any single category.

Findings

The themes derived from the data are labeled with descriptive titles based on notable quotations from participants that encapsulate the central insights of each theme. The emerged themes are as follows: (1) “Straight boys don’t have to face society as we do,” a theme highlights the discrimination and marginalization experienced by gay professional athletes, as well as the perceived differences between these athletes and their heterosexual counterparts; (2) “I do feel alienated,” a theme includes anecdotes illustrating participants’ experiences of exclusion while participating in professional team sports; (3) “They didn’t have enough information,” a theme comprises stories that underscore the lack of acceptance, awareness and advocacy for gay athletes within professional sport industries. The last two themes present counter-stories from the participants, aimed at making both the sporting realm and society more inclusive. A summary of research findings is provided in Table 2 (suitable placement of Table 2).

Despite hailing from diverse cultures and sports backgrounds, participants unanimously assert that professional sports have yet to achieve true inclusion for gay athletes. In their shared perspective, “inclusion” signifies a state where they can freely and comfortably discuss their sexuality, without the necessity for code-switching when integrating into new teams. Instances of micro-aggressions, reported by study participants, have led to decisions to switch sports, depart from teams or negatively impact their overall experiences and identity development. Acknowledging that discomfort in locker and shower rooms often originates from personal insecurities, participants also concede that they may not always be entirely forthcoming about their experiences. They strongly believe that increased visibility of openly gay athletes has the potential to normalize such situations, fostering a more inclusive environment, which can be further strengthened by relevant policy enhancements.

“Straight boys don’t have to face society as we do.”

Participants candidly describe their encounters with discrimination and marginalization, shedding light on the disparities they face compared to their heterosexual peers. Tobias expresses this feeling saying, “I guess being a straight is easier, because straight boys don’t have to face society as we do.” Surprisingly, many recount how coming out, though challenging, ultimately enhanced their athletic performance and overall well-being. Nevertheless, they also acknowledge that team sports, as opposed to individual sports, are often less inclusive. Participants suggest that this could be the sports industry’s primary focus on profit, prioritizing financial gains over fostering equality and inclusivity. Consequently, athletes often feel constrained in sharing their unfiltered stories.

Whereas participants believe that sport is not a welcoming place for gay athletes in professional team sports, with language being the most common reason. Tobias says, “In sport, we don’t have real acceptance yet. If you’re gay, you can’t be a professional sport athlete.” Miika reflects on experiences of other athletes who are openly gay, stating, “I think that maybe [the sport world] is not ready yet.” Miika continues that if an athlete comes out, “it will close some doors,” showing there is fear that coming out may negatively impact athletes’ careers. The participants of this study define inclusion as an environment where athletes do not have to come out or feel awkward or uncomfortable when discussing their sexuality. The feelings of inclusion and welcomeness are a difficult metrics to measure. When speaking to how far the sport community must go to reach inclusion for gay athletes, the participants emphasize that the sport community is “not even inclusive for all races or genders yet,” indicating that there is still a long journey ahead. Each athlete provided their own estimate of the time it might take to achieve inclusion in their respective sport. Klaus says, “I’d say probably another decade or two.” Jackson predicts that inclusion is “very far,” stating that “we are a few generations from it to be honest.”

Within the realm of professional sports, it is essential to recognize that it operates as a business. Athletes find themselves navigating high-stress situations where the demand for peak performance is constant. Importantly, they emphasize that inclusivity is not a top priority because decisions within these organizations are primarily driven by the pursuit of profit rather than the well-being of the athletes. Miika astutely points out that, “professional sport is a business,” and the competitive, profit-oriented environment can be taxing, not only for gay athletes but for everyone involved. This pressure often compels athletes to turn to substances to cope with the stress, anxiety and depression that they encounter.

Dalton outlines the discrimination he experienced and referenced it in his reason for switching from American football to rugby by saying, “I actually quit [American] football in school because I had been bullied and like … being constantly called like, faggot and all these other things in trainings.” Klaus feels that his sexuality prevented him from playing on a previous team, with a former coach saying, “[his] sexuality was a distraction and was preventing [him] from reaching his potential.” Jackson notes that he was not concerned about the impact his sexuality would have on his career, stating, “If I were really concerned about [homophobia], I probably would have picked an individual sport.” Klaus points out that he and his friends gravitated towards volleyball due to its reputation for inclusivity, especially when compared to more prominent sports like basketball or American football. Dalton observes that rugby, with its fewer entrenched traditions, is also more open and accepting than certain other sports, such as American football. This, in part, is attributed to a degree of luck.

Participants express the idea, summarized by Tobias, who said, “always choose to tell [their] experiences from a positive point of view.” While many news articles focus on athletes coming out in public settings—situations they may later reflect upon differently—it is not surprising that athletes might choose to hide their sexuality if they anticipate a negative impact from coming out. Participants in this study report that their statements about their experiences often do not fully reflect the truth. The participants acknowledge that they might not always provide a complete account of their experiences with homophobia. This lack of transparency could be due to various reasons, including consciously or unconsciously accentuating the positive aspects of their experiences, having relatively low expectations, striving to assimilate within the team environment or fearing that speaking out or acting in a way perceived as detrimental could jeopardize their hard-earned positions in their careers.

Participants cite having low expectations and anticipate encountering homophobia. Santiago, for instance, acknowledges that some teammates may make jokes about his mannerisms, but he is accustomed to it and does not let it bother him. Dalton’s low expectations stem from the feeling that, “nothing is ever going to be fully positive.” Participants also note that their previous reports of their experiences are often more positive than their true feelings. They report working tirelessly to reach their current positions and express a reluctance to jeopardize the achievements they have earned. This may be a strategy to maintain a bond with the team by not playing the proverbial “victim card” and by not calling out their team or sport. For example, Dalton states that he felt pressure to not say anything too controversial to avoid bringing negative attention to him, his team or sport.

Dalton emphasizes his desire for honesty but also acknowledges the need to navigate a cover story—a narrative that falls between the truth and what he feels comfortable sharing. He maintains this approach because he wants to be a representative not only for his sport but also for the broader gay community. Tobias highlights his strategy of maintaining a positive demeanor to establish and uphold bonds with his teammates. His approach involves being more positive, which he believes shields him from their negativity and, in time, fosters their acceptance of his sexual orientation. In this context, Tobias is striving to integrate within the existing structure rather than challenging it. Given the significant impact of public perception on professional athletes, participants are hesitant to attract negative media attention to themselves, their team or their sport.

Although participants commonly express a sense that professional sport and their sexuality might not seamlessly align, they underscore the positive influence their coming out has had on their athletic performance. Santiago says, “I feel like there’s nothing holding me back.” The athletes in this study note that being in the closet is a distraction, and once an athlete comes out, they can focus more, improving their performance. Tobias elaborates on his belief that coming out improved his health and led to experiencing fewer injuries than when he was in the closet. Tobias states:

Before coming out my performance was not good at all. I had a lot of operations in a little period of time. After accepting my sexuality, they called me to play with the national team. From this moment, my career went better, and everything improved.

“I do feel alienated.”

Each participant shared personal anecdotes about their experiences of exclusion or the sense of detachment they felt from their respective teams. Dalton emphasized, “I think that I have always just been … I guess I do feel alienated.” Language emerged as a prominent factor contributing to this prevailing sense of alienation among them. Additionally, participants noted that the awkwardness experienced in communal showers further exacerbated these feelings. Moreover, the athletes discussed various strategies aimed at supporting their peers facing similar challenges of alienation.

Upon joining new teams, each participant admitted to experiencing a degree of apprehension as they entered unfamiliar environments. They all developed techniques to gauge the degree of acceptance in these new settings. As Dalton aptly put it, “you don’t have to be fucking Sherlock Holmes” to discern the atmosphere within a team. One of the characteristics that separates professional athletes from amateurs is the need to switch teams, which can cause anxiety. The common strategy was to keep their heads down, not speak up too much and carefully observe the team environment and atmosphere. Participants note that they are usually unaware if the team knows about their sexuality or not, but they do not say anything until after a certain amount of time to allow for adequate assessments. Klaus reports this phenomenon as “code switching,” essentially trying to adapt their speech and mannerisms to fit the situation. Many participants code-switch until they reach a point where they feel comfortable enough to truly be themselves. Language is usually the important factor during this observation period.

Dalton suggests a great way to improve the environment, with the hope of addressing micro-aggressions, is to update the language that used by, “implement[ing] your own language.” For example, Miika notes that ice hockey players will often label someone or something as “gay” instead of saying “bad.” Participants point to organizational policies and coaches’ discipline as crucial starting points for making a change in sports culture. Dalton articulates that players are “never going to buy into something that does not come from the top of the organizational food chain.” He also suggests that the people most in need of education are “those people at the top.” Miika further suggests that coaches build rapport with their players by having in-person conversations, where the coach can try to get to know their players better. On the other hand, Miika does not believe that coaches will be the ones who can adequately police the behaviour of the players, saying that the motivation to improve the environment “has to come from the player” and not be dictated or mandated; otherwise, it will never change permanently.

Participants acknowledge that, even when athletes are comfortable coming out, discussing the topic can still be awkward because they are uncertain whether everyone is aware of their sexuality. Participants revealed that they use humor as a means to introduce the subject of their sexuality. However, this humor can sometimes blur the line between jokes and offensiveness, leaving teammates uncertain. Tobias emphasizes the importance of tolerance and empathy, stating, “you need to be patient and understand,” recognizing that not everyone is equally accepting of gay individuals. As such, gay athletes are advised to exercise patience when jokes cross the line, recognizing that this is often a step in the journey toward fostering inclusion.

After gay athletes have integrated into the team and feel comfortable, participants in this study note that their next goal is to foster stronger bonds within the group. This involves a distinct shift in how they are treated once they have spent some time on the team. One strategy for altering the team’s atmosphere is to actively demonstrate compassion towards teammates, especially gay individuals from other countries who may be experiencing greater isolation. Santiago highlights the challenges of frequent relocation in professional volleyball settings, which can lead to feelings of loneliness. During these times, he mentions that “it would be nice for someone to ask” how they are doing or to show their comfort with their sexuality by talking about it.

Miika and Tobias also experience a sense of isolation when far from their home countries for extended periods. Hence, putting in extra effort to check in and engage in meaningful conversations could be highly beneficial. These athletes express that there are rarely “deep conversations” within the team, which could be initiated through questions from teammates. All participants in this study express a desire for their teammates to ask questions about their sexuality, as this act would symbolize acceptance and contribute to their understanding. Tobias suggests that if teammates are uncomfortable asking questions, making comments about homosexuality could open the door for discussion. Santiago emphasizes the significance of initiating a conversation about sexuality, stating that avoiding the topic entirely can be interpreted as homophobic. He underscores the importance of normalizing discussions and demonstrating comfort in addressing the subject.

Although the participants feel like a part of their team, there is one area that still causes anxiety for them. Half of the participants note issues related to showering on teams. Tobias recalls that when he first went to an Eastern European country, his teammates did not want to shower with him because of his sexuality. Dalton and Klaus report feeling uneasy about showering with their teams due to their own insecurities. They further explain that while they do not have a problem showering at the same time as their team, they feel pressure to avoid being seen as “peeking” or being perceived as intrusive. Klaus verbalizes, “I hope they don’t think I’m looking at them or whatnot …. I would say the locker room does feel a little awkward at times.” Dalton echoes, “I would generally try to avoid using the showers … and … just wait till I get home.” For various reasons, the showering environment continues to be a source of anxiety for gay athletes, prompting them to either shower before or after their team, or simply wait until they get home.

The participants openly recounted a multitude of adverse encounters, often stemming from their own anxieties and pessimistic ruminations. Engaging in open conversations about these experiences served as a conduit for them to articulate their emotions, confront internal disparities and, in many instances, achieve a sense of catharsis. When asked about the appropriate individuals for athletes to confide in, their unanimous response was that “literally anyone will do.” Expressing oneself honestly and openly demonstrates vulnerability, a goal that is reported to be crucial, not only for gay athletes but for individuals in general. Dalton adds, “But for me, I feel like specifically in men sports, there are so few people who can cross over into being vulnerable …. [I think] it’s a leadership quality that is really rare.” This practice of being candid and open, as suggested, not only enhances an athlete’s mental well-being but can also contribute to fostering a more inclusive environment for their teammates.

“They didn’t have enough information.”

The participants in this study highlight a marked lack of acceptance, awareness and advocacy for LGBTQ+ individuals, having firsthand knowledge about the exclusion of gay athletes. In broader society, and within the realm of sports, participants primarily blame a deficiency in education. Tobias comments, “Their problem was that they didn’t have enough information.” Participants put forth constructive proposals for addressing these deficiencies through educational reforms. Additionally, they stress that the process of learning and promoting acceptance is a shared Endeavour for gay athletes and their teammates, underscoring the necessity of patience in fostering an inclusive environment.

All the participants in this study express that their decision to come out had a broader purpose, primarily aimed at positively influencing other individuals. Santiago summarizes by stating, “I wasn’t doing it for myself, you know, like, I wanted to share my story for others.” This influence is channeled towards inspiring others to embrace their true selves or motivating them to pursue careers in athletics. None of the participants indicate that their coming out was primarily self-serving, intending to enhance their mental well-being or gain more media attention. Furthermore, all participants concur that their teammates initially harbored some apprehension about having a gay teammate. However, they unanimously note that, over time, they felt increasingly accepted as their fellow team members grew more at ease with their presence. The teammates’ initial misconceptions about having a gay colleague were gradually dispelled through personal experiences and interactions, ultimately leading to a more inclusive and welcoming team environment. Tobias states:

They saw that I was not going to do anything bad to them. So, they started to relax. And finally, they accepted me. They even started to defend the cause because they … thought that being gay was okay. They started telling their families that it was okay.

Santiago says that it is an educational journey, “a process for both” the athlete and their teammates. Much like the journey of self-acceptance that gay individuals undergo, the path towards acceptance from others, such as teammates, coaches and administrative staff, is also a gradual process. It entails dispelling any previously held misconceptions and prejudices through positive real-life interactions with gay athletes. As previously mentioned, gay athletes can play a pivotal role in facilitating this process by engaging in candid conversations, using humor and openly embracing and celebrating their sexuality. This collective effort contributes to fostering a more inclusive and accepting environment.

Miika aptly asserts that “no one is born homophobic,” emphasizing that any prejudice is a result of an individual’s environment. Participants of this study underscore the necessity for educational initiatives aimed at achieving equality and inclusion for gay athletes within the professional team sports arena. This education should extend beyond just teammates, coaches and administrators. Participants further elaborated on a “two-pronged approach,” involving gaining insights from the experiences of gay athletes and integrating LGBTQ+ lessons into the school curriculum. They stress the importance of incorporating these lessons into subjects such as health and physical education, social studies and history. This long-term educational strategy is considered fundamental for fostering future understanding, tolerance and acceptance of gay individuals in professional team sports.

Klaus echoes that education is the key to not only combating homophobia but also potentially addressing other injustices in our society, noting, “No one’s born a racist, no one’s born homophobic. It’s just the environment you’re in, that you grow up in.” The participants suggest that the struggles combating homophobia in mainstream professional sport resemble the fights against sexism and racism. Klaus believes that “changing sex education may be a big ask at the beginning,” but he asserts that “gay people are being erased from history by omitting them from the classroom textbooks and discussions.” There appears to be a serious lack of education around all LGBTQ+ people in the education system, which may also be an area that could produce substantial societal change. Tobias states, “This is a process; first we need to accept gays in the sports world. And then we can go one step farther [into society].”

Discussion

Experiences of discrimination and marginalization, and perceived differences

Achieving inclusion in professional sport industries within decades might appear brief and meaningful, but it is essential to acknowledge that this is grounded in the athletes’ career environments. The reality is that athletic careers often span only a handful of years, meaning that a couple of decades can encompass multiple generations of athletes. This prediction does not include countries still within the homoerasure (denial of homosexuality) and homohysteria (rejection of homosexuality) stages, as outlined by Anderson (2010a).

Athletes feel that their value is intertwined with their performance and their capacity to win games. O’Callaghan (2019) discusses his own journey through addiction and highlights how common it is for athletes to struggle with addictions, sometimes propagated by the league or team to enhance short-term performance. It is not uncommon for a team or organization to prioritize their win/loss record at the cost of athletes, who can be replaced at any time. This dichotomy is also pronounced between professional and amateur athletes, with professionals facing dismissal due to injuries that require extended recovery. Therefore, participants believe that if a factor, such as being gay, poses any potential risk to the team, they will not be given the opportunity to join the squad.

The participants in this study underscore a distinct divergence between individual and team sport environments. They emphasize the marked inequality and exclusion faced by gay athletes in professional team sports. Additionally, they highlight an essential factor influencing their decision to come out: the relative obscurity and lesser popularity of certain sports, particularly in smaller cities. This diminished visibility reduces the potential risks associated with coming out, making it a more viable option for athletes in these contexts.

These sentiments underscore the necessity for trailblazers to normalize coming out in major sports, as Carl Nassib did. The consensus among participants is that the more athletes come out across different sports, the quicker the sporting world will attain inclusivity. Anderson (2010a, b) posits several factors that influence an athlete’s likelihood of coming out, including the level of competition in the sport, geographic location, race and the athlete’s socioeconomic status. Due to the sample size not being extensive enough, making these generalizations at the professional level would not be feasible. Nevertheless, in the NFL, 14 players have come out as gay during or after their careers; the NBA has seen two individuals come out post-retirement; MLB has had four and the NHL has had none who have competed in their league come out. The assumptions drawn from Anderson’s work (2010a, b) are grounded in North American athletes, primarily competing at the high school and college/university levels. Larger studies could potentially establish the participant’s country of involvement as a determinant of inclusion likelihood.

Anderson (2010b) delves into the influence of focusing on positives and the prevalence of low expectations, which could skew reported experiences of athletes coming out at the high school and university/college levels. This pattern also emerges among the participants of this study. It is conceivable that maintaining a positive outlook and solely concentrating on the positive aspects is the factor allowing these athletes to continue competing. These athletes have demonstrated their choice to emphasize the positives while not disregarding the sense of alienation.

Experiences of exclusion and resistance

Language with a negative connotation is often labeled as banter (Anderson et al., 2016; Denison and Kitchen, 2020). However, the examples from the participants are not mere one-off jokes. These statements indicate the presence of homophobia in professional sports, evident by the fear displayed by heterosexual athletes of being labeled as gay. Language plays a significant role in shaping the perception of inclusivity in a sports environment for gay athletes (Anderson et al., 2016; Denison and Kitchen, 2020; Grossman et al., 2009). Thus, improving language becomes a vital step in enhancing the inclusivity and welcoming nature of sports.

Perhaps by discovering a new term to replace “gay” in this context, athletes can significantly reduce the perception of homophobia (Anderson, 2010b; MacDonald, 2018). Denison and Kitchen (2020) suggest that it is crucial for players to monitor each other’s behavior and language, especially because adolescent athletes are often unsupervised, leading to cultural change originating from within. Jackson and Delehanty (2014) argue that for professional athletes, the best strategy involves having no strict rules, as striving to circumvent them becomes counterproductive. Instead, Jackson and Delehanty (2014) propose building team chemistry, motivating players to respect their teammates. Denison and Kitchen (2020) note that most of their study participants believe coaches and administrators should lead in promoting allyship and inclusion. A hybrid approach is suggested, wherein coaches and administrators explain the concept and language change to athletes, fostering a positive environment and encouraging athletes to embrace the new team culture.

Utilizing humor is not a new concept as jokes are considered signs of acceptance. Buzinski (2016) writes, “while he was outwardly accepted, it wasn’t until teammates started joking with him about gay stuff that he knew he was truly one of them” (p. 1). Evidently, humor plays a crucial role for both gay athletes and their teammates. Based on discussions with participants in this study, teammates of gay athletes should also employ jokes to establish connections, but only after the gay athlete has initiated it. Additionally, it is advisable for teammates to engage in one-on-one discussions with the gay athlete if they believe the joking has crossed boundaries. This ensures a welcoming team atmosphere and can foster stronger team cohesion, as gay athletes will understand that the humor does not stem from ill intentions.

MacDonald (2018) notes that participants in their study, which included AAA hockey players, expressed concerns about showering when contemplating having a gay teammate. Previous literature did not seem to highlight such issues, with most problems identified in this study being perceptions held by athletes rather than discussed openly among their teammates.

Education as a vehicle for social change

It has been suggested that athletes come out for their own benefit, as in the case of Jason Collins. Collins was thought to be at the end of his career, and his coming out was theorized to be motivated to get increased exposure to facilitate him in signing another NBA contract (Kian et al., 2015). However, the participants of this study not only reported that their motivation was not solely self-serving, but it was, in fact, to try to have a positive impact on others, even though they felt that it might hinder their careers.

Previous literature presents evidence that when athletes or teams have experience with a gay athlete, their attitudes towards gay athletes significantly improve in the long term (Anderson, 2011, 2018; Anderson and Fidler, 2018; Magrath et al., 2015; McCormack and Anderson, 2014; Plummer, 2001; Roper and Halloran, 2007). However, if a gay athlete’s experience is negative, it might trigger a ripple effect that discourages other gay athletes from coming out. This phenomenon was observed in one of the athletes in the study. A study participant was advised by a coach not to come out due to the career impact the first author of this study experienced after his own coming out (reference removed for author anonymity).

Unfortunately, Lee (2022) discusses the “Don’t Say Gay Bill,” recently passed in Florida, USA, which prohibits teachers from discussing sexuality and gender in their classrooms. With the enactment of this bill, it seems that society is moving in the wrong direction concerning education, as it implies that children and youth must be shielded from LGBTQ+ topics. The potential of regressing due to the lack of continued advocacy for gay rights has been highlighted in prior literature (McCormack and Anderson, 2014). Whereas the study participants strongly emphasize the critical importance of incorporating LGBTQ+ awareness education into the school system to nurture enduring acceptance and encourage inclusive behaviors. Embedding comprehensive LGBTQ+ education within the curriculum can serve as a vehicle for social change, acting as a proactive contribution to fostering a more tolerant and understanding society (Herrick et al., 2022; The Canadian Centre for Gender and Sexual Diversity, n.d.). This educational approach aims to dismantle stereotypes, reduce prejudice and promote empathy among students, establishing a foundation for a more inclusive future. For gay athletes, such education plays a pivotal role in creating an environment where acceptance is ingrained. When individuals are educated about the experiences and challenges faced by LGBTQ+ individuals, including gay athletes, they are more likely to exhibit supportive behaviors and foster a welcoming atmosphere within sports teams (Herrick et al., 2022; The Canadian Centre for Gender and Sexual Diversity, n.d.). This enduring impact holds the potential to cultivate an inclusive and welcoming environment for gay athletes in sports communities.

Conclusion

It is important to reiterate that the participants in this study do not perceive themselves as being on an equal footing with their heterosexual counterparts. Negative environments either motivated them to come out or kept them in the closet. None of the athletes anticipate still being active in their sport by the time it achieves true inclusion. Language plays a significant role in shaping the perception of inclusivity for gay athletes. Language can improve considerably through teammates gaining experience with gay athletes and receiving education. Team sport athletes need to hold themselves accountable and incorporate inclusive language within their teams and sports to create a more welcoming environment for gay athletes.

Despite the extensive recruiting efforts in this study, numerous sports and countries remain unexplored. Future studies could consider recruiting athletes outside of Europe, North America and South America or focusing on the perspectives of specifically closeted athletes, or even narrowing the scope to a single sport. The participants were familiar to the first author, allowing for pre-probing or prior knowledge of their experiences. A trend was observed among participants who had endured serious homophobic experiences or were not out, as some eventually ceased communication during the process. Five participants fit this profile. Certain participants explained their reasons for non-participation in the study, which were neither solicited nor expected, ranging from needing to focus on their ongoing season to being in proximity to the Ukraine/Russia conflict.

The study’s time frame posed challenges since most leagues worldwide operating from September to April, coinciding with the data collection period. It is recommended for future studies to extend the data collection period throughout the year to facilitate engaging athletes during their active seasons. Additionally, recruiting efforts in Asia and the Middle East need to be emphasized in future studies. Pachankis and Bränström (2019) predicts that approximately 83% of sexual minorities worldwide conceal their sexual orientation, suggesting that a substantial number of gay athletes may still be hidden.

The inequality in visibility of gay athletes in research further marginalizes them, as under-representation in research data can limit their access to research-based solutions addressing social injustice issues. The athletes in this study originated from three different continents, offering a diverse range of perspectives that remain largely unexplored. Follow-up studies filling out this gap are required. Furthermore, exploring the differences between athletes who were open about their sexual orientation and those who were not could be intriguing. To date, no other studies provide information on athletes who are still in the closet. Additionally, there are no prior studies that compare gay athletes’ perceptions of their sport or team climate with those of their heterosexual teammates. Such comparisons will not only spark future dialogues on differences but also drive policy, practice and research innovations aimed at dismantling systemic discrimination against gay athletes.

Table 1

A description of participants

Alias	Sport	Country of sport participation
Santiago	Volleyball	Spain
Tobias	Volleyball	Austria
Klaus	Volleyball	Germany
Miika	Ice Hockey	Finland
Dalton	Rugby	UK
Jackson	Curling	Canada

Source(s): Authors’ own creation

Table 2

A summary of research findings

Theme	Main idea	Key quotation
“Straight boys don’t have to face society as we do.”	Coming out resulted in better performance	“After accepting my sexuality, …everything improved.”
	Inclusion is still decades and generations away	“… another decade or two.”
	Professional sports prioritize income over the well-being of athletes and societal improvement	“Professional sport is a business.”
	There is a perceived difference between individual and team sport athletes with regards to homophobia	“If I was really concerned about [homophobia], I probably would have picked an individual sport.”
	Experiences are omitted or changed to be more positive	“… always choose to tell [their] experiences from a positive point of view.”
“I do feel alienated.”	Techniques were developed to assess the level of acceptance in new settings	“You don’t have to be fucking Sherlock Holmes.”
	Language is a significant factor for the perception of inclusion	“… implement[ing] your own language.”
	Negative experiences decrease over time	“You need to be patient and understand.”
	Periodic check-ins increase sense of belonging	“It would be nice for someone to ask.”
	The shower can be an intimidating factor	“… just wait till I get home.”
	Confiding in someone is important	“Literally anyone will do.”
“They didn’t have enough information.”	Coming out helps others and contributes to normalizing the experience	“I wanted to share my story for others.”
	Gay athletes learn about the experience and process, along with their team	“… a process for both.”
	Improvements can be made to include LGBTQ+ lessons in school education	“No one is born homophobic.”

Source(s): Authors’ own creation

Funding: The study received support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.

Disclosure statement: The authors hereby confirm that there is no conflict of interest.